The residential building sector is a significant source of global energy consumption and carbon emissions, especially in rapidly changing rural areas. In China, the shift from vernacular courtyard dwellings to modern rural housing has altered the relationship among architectural form, thermal comfort (TC), and energy use. Vernacular dwellings in northern China employ passive strategies, such as courtyard-centred layouts, high thermal-mass envelopes, and natural ventilation, to achieve summer comfort with minimal energy input. In contrast, modern dwellings (brick–concrete) depend more on mechanical cooling and consume more electricity. This study investigates how dwelling type, spatial configuration, building materials, courtyard configuration, thermal comfort, and housing satisfaction interact to shape residential environmental adaptability in rural Handan, Hebei Province. A questionnaire survey of 383 households was analysed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM). To supplement perceptual data, summer electricity consumption was monitored in 20 typical dwellings from June to August 2025, and on-site measurements of air temperature, relative humidity, and courtyard air velocity were conducted in six representative cases. The results indicate that dwelling type significantly affects spatial configuration and courtyard form, while spatial configuration and courtyard characteristics together influence material performance. Thermal comfort is identified as a key mediating variable with a strong direct impact on housing satisfaction. Field measurements confirm that vernacular dwellings have lower summer electricity consumption, more stable thermal conditions, improved humidity regulation, and higher courtyard air velocity, indicating superior passive cooling potential. These findings provide empirical evidence that incorporating vernacular passive design principles into contemporary rural housing can improve thermal comfort and reduce energy dependence, thereby supporting climate-responsive, low-carbon rural revitalization strategies.

Research on longitudinal ceiling gas temperature of two fires with unequal heat release rates in a high-altitude tunnel under natural ventilation

Equations for vertical distribution of temperature and velocity in a horizontal tunnel with a vertically longer rectangular shape under natural ventilation

Mental health issues in Indonesia have become an increasingly critical public health concern, with approximately one in five individuals experiencing mental disorders. This study aims to redesign the interior of Marzoeki Mahdi Mental Hospital in Bogor using a salutogenic approach, focusing on health promotion and well-being rather than illness-centered treatment. Salutogenesis is based on the Sense of Coherence (SOC), consisting of comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness as determinants of a supportive healing environment. This study applies a qualitative design method through field surveys, direct observation, and literature review, structured using the Rosemary Kilmer design process (analysis and synthesis stages). The redesign focuses on five functional spaces: registration area, doctor’s room, psychiatric consultation room, inpatient room, and group therapy room, with a minimum design area of 500 m². The proposed design optimizes natural lighting and ventilation, access to green open spaces, privacy management, ergonomic layouts, and calming materials and colors. The redesign creates a more humane, safe, and emotionally supportive environment, reducing stigma and fostering holistic recovery.

Abstract This paper evaluates the performance of ventilation and fire-protection system in a 200 metre road tunnel using PyroSim/FDS. Three design fires were modelled — heavy goods vehicle (100 MW), bus/truck (25 MW) and passenger car vehicle (10 MW)— under two configurations: natural ventilation (baseline) and an integrated system combining longitudinal mechanical ventilation with sprinklers. Under baseline conditions, simulations show rapid smoke back-layering, rising thermal loads and loss of tenability within minutes. The integrated configuration preserved upstream tenability and directed smoke downstream, moderating—but not entirely eliminating—severe local heating; in the integrated runs the fire growth was constrained, with HRR behaviour capped at values comparable to those observed under the natural-ventilation cases. The discussion interprets thermal fields, smoke and CO distribution, visibility and sensor/sprinkler response, and draws implications for evacuation routing, control strategy for jet fans, and performance-based design. Simulation fidelity was corroborated using an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) regression (R = 0.97–0.99), supporting the reliability of the numerical findings. The results underline the limitations of natural ventilation alone and the practical benefits of coordinated ventilation–suppression strategies for tunnel fire safety. Keywords: Tunnel fire, Ventilation, Sprinkler suppression, PyroSim, Back-layering

Occupant window interaction is a critical component in optimizing energy consumption and indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Understanding the influence of environmental and behavioral factors on window state decisions remains a significant challenge in building management systems (BMS). We present a hybrid probabilistic model to assess thermal comfort and predict the probability of the occupant opening or closing the window. The data was acquired from an open-source platform that provided yearly university dormitory window interactions. Bayesian networks (BNs) and logistic regression (LR) models were applied to predict the window-opening behavior of the occupants. An average accuracy of 92% for Bayesian and 94% for LR were obtained. The results were further enhanced by combining these models through weighted methods, with weights extrapolated through generative recursive iterations generating an average accuracy of 95% and Area Under the Curve (AUC) of 98%. The proposed hybrid approach significantly improves over existing predictive models in thermal comfort and window state prediction. Practical Application This research provides a practical tool for building engineers, facility managers, and smart system developers to significantly improve energy efficiency and occupant comfort. The developed hybrid model predicts window-opening behavior with high accuracy (95%). This enables the creation of next generation BMS that can anticipate occupant needs, proactively adjust heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) operations, and reduce unnecessary energy consumption. For building designers, the model offers data-driven understandings into realistic occupant behavior (OB), leading to better-performing natural ventilation approaches.

Natural ventilation is a common cooling strategy in open dairy barns, but its efficiency largely depends on external wind directions and speeds. Misalignment between external airflow and fan jets often led to non-uniform air distribution, reduced local cooling efficiency, and an elevated risk of heat stress in cows. However, few studies have systematically examined the combined effects of wind directions and speeds on airflow and heat dissipation. Most research isolates natural or mechanical ventilation effects, neglecting their interaction. Accurate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling of the coupling between outdoor and indoor airflow is crucial for designing and evaluating mixed ventilation systems in dairy barns. To address this gap, this study systematically analyzed the effects of external wind directions (0°, 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°) and speeds (1, 3, 5, 7, 10 m s−1) on fan jet distribution and convective heat transfer around dairy cows using the open-source CFD platform OpenFOAM. By evaluating body surface airflow and regional convective heat transfer coefficients (CHTCs), this study quantitatively linked barn-scale airflow to animal heat dissipation. Results showed that both wind directions and speeds markedly influenced airflow and heat exchange. Under 0° wind direction, dorsal airflow reached 6.2 m s−1 and CHTCs increased nearly linearly with wind speeds, indicating strong synergy between the fan jet and external wind. Crosswinds (90° wind direction) enhanced abdominal airflow (approximately 5.2 m s−1), whereas oblique and opposing winds (135–180°) caused stagnation and reduced convection. The dorsal-to-abdominal CHTCs ratio (Rd/a) increased to about 1.6 under axial winds but decreased to 1.1 under cross-flow, reflecting reduced thermal asymmetry. Overall, combining axial and lateral airflow paths improves ventilation uniformity in naturally or mechanically ventilated dairy barns. The findings provide theoretical and technical support for optimizing ventilation design, contributing to energy efficiency, animal welfare, productivity, and the sustainable development of dairy farming under changing climatic conditions.

Most of the pollution inside a dental clinic comes from the external environment; therefore, the location of the building affects the air quality, as well as the work activity and the type of natural or mechanical ventilation. In the dental sector, pathologies caused by pollutants are increasing, mainly because of methyl methacrylate, 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate, and triethylene glycol dimethacrylate. However, there are still gaps in the literature regarding the potential effects of all environmental pollutants, and particularly the long-term effects on healthcare workers. A comprehensive search was conducted across PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library databases, without time limits, resulting in a total of 155 scientific articles. After the removal of the duplicates, 86 single papers remained for further analysis. The titles of these articles were manually reviewed to include relevant references related to the presence of indoor pollutants in the air of dental clinics. Following this screening process, 10 studies were identified as relevant to the topic of the systematic review. Seven scientific articles were selected to be included in this review. The seven experimental studies reported various air pollutants related to diseases affecting dental health. In particular, the levels of volatile organic compounds, carbon dioxide, and temperature were analyzed in a university dental clinic. Levels of environmental pollutants are much higher during working hours, particularly during dental procedures such as prosthetic and conservative dentistry, due to the chemical nature of the materials used. However, no study reported exceeding the limits set by national environmental regulations. Due to the heterogeneity of the studies, the variety of molecules, the variety of clinical facilities and their geographical location subject to different regulations, as well as the variety of measurement methods, including the variety of traditional and/or technological ventilation systems used in dental departments, a meta-analysis was not performed. Despite the limitations of this systematic review, it was possible to identify some key points that are useful for further in vivo studies aimed at developing specific guidelines to protect health care workers.

In the face of increasing global temperatures, this study aims to explore ventilation strategies that could provide passive cooling to mitigate overheating in studied low-energy school buildings, in particular those that use ventilative cooling. This study utilises building modelling calibrated with field data to tackle the challenge of maintaining indoor thermal comfort and cognitive performance levels during increasingly warm seasons. The calibrated building model is used to evaluate the vulnerability of classrooms, identifying and addressing risks based on standardised overheating and resilience criteria. Two primary school classrooms were simulated in three main cities across Ireland to assess the possibility of natural ventilative cooling for maintaining indoor thermal conditions without sacrificing energy efficiency. The study highlights the critical need to enhance natural ventilation strategies to protect against projected future overheating, with peak indoor temperatures reaching 29 °C to 31 °C during May, June, and September. Implementing a maximum natural ventilation strategy during occupied times, with a 9.6% opening-to-floor area ratio, can reduce peak indoor temperatures by up to 2.5 °C. Findings show Irish classrooms in low-energy buildings equipped with hybrid ventilative cooling can act as potential climate shelters during July and August under extreme weather conditions, underlining their capacity to provide a comfortable environment for vulnerable people during heatwaves and reduce overheating risk by 42–48% compared to natural ventilation. Additionally, projections show that cognitive performance loss in students may rise to 23% by 2071 due to raised indoor temperatures; however, this can be reduced to below 10% in 2021 and 2041 with maximum natural ventilation. The novelty of this work lies in its systematic evaluation of ventilative cooling resilience under future climate scenarios across multiple Irish city contexts, providing a robust evidence base for designing climate-resilient, energy-efficient learning environments.

This study explores the intersection of sociocultural factors, particularly privacy, with energy consumption patterns in residential buildings in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. While cultural values around privacy have long been recognised as influential in residential design, the impact of these values on energy consumption is underexplored. This research aims to fill this gap by examining how privacy needs, residents’ preferences, and open layouts affect energy efficiency, particularly in terms of natural light and ventilation. A mixed-methods approach was employed, including semi-structured interviews with engineers, data collected from 108 respondents via an online survey, a case study of a residential building in Riyadh, and building performance simulations using IES software. The study also assessed actual energy consumption data and indoor lighting as potential implications of privacy concerns, causing changes in behavioural control of systems (e.g., windows, blinds, lighting, etc.). It focuses on the relationship between privacy needs, energy use, and natural daylight distribution. The IES simulation results for the studied residential building show an annual energy consumption of 24,000 kWh, primarily due to cooling loads and artificial lighting caused by privacy measures applied by the residents. The findings reveal that privacy-driven design choices and occupant behaviours, such as the use of full window shutters, frosted glazing and limited window operation, significantly reduce daylight availability and natural ventilation, leading to increased reliance on artificial lighting and air conditioning. This study highlights the need for human-centric design approaches that address the interplay between sociocultural factors, particularly reinforcing cultural sensitivity, and building performance, offering insights for future sustainable housing developments in Riyadh and similar contexts.

Aim: Natural ventilation in buildings can enhance indoor health and well-being while also reducing the energy consumption required for mechanical cooling and heating. However, due to the complexity of many building floor plans, achieving effective natural ventilation can be difficult. To investigate how natural ventilation in buildings can be improved, a study was conducted to identify a prototype window design feature that can generate differential air pressure levels sufficient to create improved natural air flow for indoor spaces having one exterior exposure only. The purpose was to identify basic aerodynamic principles that can be applied to more complex architectural environments later. Methods: A wind-tunnel experiment using a scale building model compared airflow performance across cross-ventilation, corner-ventilation, and single-sided configurations, including a prototype window-panel design. Air velocities were recorded at multiple orientations and wind speeds, and airflow patterns were visualized using smoke tracers. Results: Maximum indoor air velocities for the cross-ventilation and corner-ventilation configurations were observed at orientation angles between 600 and 900. However, maximum air velocities for a standard single-sided window configuration were observed at 500. Adding external architectural panels to the prototype design, the maximum airflow rate occurred at an orientation angle of 00. Increasing the wind-tunnel air velocity incrementally from 20 m/min to 80 m/min resulted in linear changes, indicating the absence of confounding turbulence factors influencing the measurement protocol. Conclusion: The prototype window-panel system substantially improved airflow under single-sided ventilation conditions and, in some orientations, approached cross-ventilation performance. These findings suggest potential applications for improving ventilation in buildings with limited exterior exposure, though validation in full-scale environments is needed. Recommendation: The design shows promise for retrofit and new-built applications in single-exposure rooms. Further research should evaluate full-scale performance, thermal comfort outcomes, and long-term energy effects.

Purpose This study aimed to inform office employees about the negative health effects of high carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and the preference for wind catchers as a filtration in building assessments during winter. Design/methodology/approach The study statistically analyzed temperature, relative humidity (RH), CO2, using correlation, regression and employees’ subjective comfort votes. Three standards given in the Center for Built Environment were evaluated for thermal sensation in offices. Findings Compliance with American Society of Heating, Refrigerating Engineers (ASHRAE) 55 and adaptive standards was achieved for thermal sensation of “electric heater” (Predicted Mean Vote −0.3, Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied 6.90%), “wind chimney and gas heater” (80% comfortable) and “no heater” (80% to 90% comfortable). However, the CO2 concentration in offices was 2.7-4.7 times higher than the World Health Organization recommendations. Research limitations/implications The study is limited to an exploratory analysis of environmental monitoring and employees’ responses toward the impact of wind catchers in building evaluation across three heating modes. Practical implications Employees can predict indoor comfort for passive, active heating and building controls during winter, reducing office syndrome. Increased awareness of wind catchers, “tower and scoop”, suggested that stakeholders use it as an energy-efficient solution in offices. Social implications The study aims to establish building practices to ensure compliance and promote the use of wind catchers’ natural ventilation. Originality/value The relationship between temperature, RH, CO2 concentration and employee satisfaction in “electric, gas, and no heater” scenarios were investigated to ensure standard compliance during the building evaluation.

Passive building ventilation features, such as wind towers, can help meet rising cooling and ventilation demands in hot, arid regions. However, most prior studies rely on scaled models or isolate single design parameters, limiting holistic insight. This study conducts a full-scale, validated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) parametric analysis of wind tower geometry and its impact on ventilation efficiency in semi-enclosed spaces. Five geometric properties are investigated: tower shape, roof type, number of shafts, separator height, and number of louvres. Additionally, the sensitivity of the optimal configuration to wind speed, wind direction, and louvre orientation is assessed. Results from 88 CFD cases highlight strong interactions among design parameters and show that straight towers with curved roofs consistently perform best. Compared with a tower with six shafts, a flat internal roof, and downward-facing louvres, an optimized tower with four shafts, a convex internal roof, and upward-facing louvres increases airflow rate by a factor of 2.7 and occupied-zone air velocity by 45%, underscoring the importance of holistic geometric optimization.

Stack-driven ventilation is one of the key forms of natural ventilation. Yet, it has rarely been tested at full scale, even though such studies offer critical evidence for validating simplified theoretical models. To investigate stack-driven ventilation experimentally, a full-scale Future Home house was tested under controlled laboratory conditions in an environmental chamber at Energy House 2.0, in the absence of wind and with a stable indoor–outdoor temperature difference. The indoor air was heated to 35 °C, while the surrounding chamber was maintained at 15 °C. Subsequently, six windows were opened simultaneously for 24 h, three on the ground floor and three on the first floor. Air velocities were measured at each opening with hot-wire probes and converted into volumetric flow rates. The total inflow averaged 1.19 m3/s compared with a theoretical prediction of 1.93 m3/s, indicating systematic overestimation by the stack effect equation. A back-calculation suggested a discharge coefficient of 0.37 instead of 0.60. The cooling energy from natural ventilation was quantified and evaluated for its capability to reduce internal air temperature in overheating conditions. The findings increase the understanding of buoyancy-driven ventilation, while underlining the need to calibrate simplified equations against experimental data.

Traditional settlements exhibit remarkable climatic adaptability, representing a form of “Morphological Intelligence” developed over centuries. However, this inherent, physics-based wisdom remains underutilized in contemporary urban planning and design. This systematic review aims to decode such intelligence by analyzing the relationship between the morphological characteristics of traditional settlements and their thermal performance. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol, literature retrieval and evaluation were conducted via the databases of Web of Science, Scopus, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) for articles published during 2004~2024. A total of 82 related articles with available full texts were selected from 1227 records for in-depth analysis, including peer-reviewed journal articles and reputable conference publications. This study first presents an overview of bibliometric and methodological landscapes, revealing that research is increasingly concentrated in Asia’s tropical and subtropical climates, predominantly employing case studies and computational simulations. Secondly, we synthesize a few key climate-adaptive morphological features across macro- (e.g., settlement layout), meso- (e.g., street canyon geometry), and microscales (e.g., courtyards). The findings illustrate a reliance on methods and metrics developed for modern urban contexts, which could not fully capture the specific morphological characteristics of traditional settlements. Most importantly, this study summarizes four core principles of “Morphological Intelligence” in traditional settlements, i.e., strategic solar control, facilitated natural ventilation, use of thermal mass, and integration of natural elements and creation of thermal buffer zones. By identifying the limitations of existing investigations, this study highlights a few directions for future studies, including conducting more systematic multi-scalar integrated analysis, focusing on the development of dedicated quantitative metrics and analytical frameworks, delving into more mechanism-oriented investigation, assessing morphological resilience under urbanization, and translating principles into contemporary design guidelines. This study provides a foundational framework for translating the “Morphological Intelligence” of traditional settlements into actionable, evidence-based strategies for resilient and energy-efficient urban planning and design amidst climate change.

ABSTRACT This study presents an experimental evaluation of overheating in habitable attics, examining the combined impact of roofing material and natural ventilation in a temperate climate. 1:5 scale test cells were built in Concepción, Chile (Csb), representative of lightweight housing construction. Asphalt-shingle and Aluzinc (high-reflectance) roofs were compared under two conditions: closed windows and cross-ventilation. Indoor air temperatures were monitored for 15 days in summer and 15 days in winter. Quantitative analysis was carried out using a representative average day for each measurement period. In summer, the test cell with the asphalt-shingle roof reached a maximum temperature of 32.71°C, exceeding that of the Aluzinc test cell by 2.84 K, and exhibited a thermal lag of 2–3 h, maintaining elevated indoor temperatures during the afternoon and delaying night-time cooling. In winter, the differences between materials were considerably smaller (0.84 K), indicating a limited thermal penalty of high-reflectance roofs under low solar radiation. The results confirm that high-reflectance roofs combined with natural ventilation constitute an effective passive strategy for mitigating overheating in habitable attics. This study broadens the regional empirical evidence and highlights overheating as an emerging challenge in temperate climates.

A comfortable and livable living environment can be created through the design of patios in traditional southern rural Chinese dwellings. By connecting indoor and outdoor spaces, patios enable the comprehensive functions of ventilation and shading. To investigate the effects of patios on the building environment and energy conservation, the field parameters of the Wu Family Mansion in Cuijiao Village, Fujian Province, southern China, were measured in August 2016. The results indicate that patios located at the center of dwellings can effectively mitigate the impact of outdoor climate on the indoor environment. Furthermore, a reasonable depth-to-width ratio of the patio is conducive to natural ventilation and energy utilization. Through discussions and simulations using CFD and EcoTECT, it is determined that the reasonable depth-to-width ratio should not be less than 0.06, and a depth of 1.6 m is the most appropriate for patio design to achieve adequate ventilation and illumination. With the Adaptive Predicted Mean Vote (APMV) value ranging from 0 to 1.41, the indoor environment of this rural building falls within the adaptive comfort zone. Compared with air-conditioned rooms, the energy-saving rate achieved by natural ventilation is approximately 26.2%.

The livability of compact high-rise social housing in tropical climates depends heavily on thermal comfort, particularly in units relying solely on natural ventilation. This study investigates how window design— specifically Openable Window Ratio (OWR) and Window Height Shading (WHS)—affects thermal comfort in naturally ventilated units of a public rental apartment in Jakarta. Using validated CFD simulations calibrated with real climate data at peak discomfort hours (13:00), thirty-six window variants were tested across three building levels (floors 4, 10, and 16). Thermal comfort was evaluated using the ASHRAE 55 standard with PMV, PPD, and thermal sensation metrics. Results show that a window design with 90% OWR and 100% WHS consistently improves thermal comfort across all heights, reducing PPD from over 80% to under 30%. Notably, even with single-sided ventilation—a common limitation in such housing—specific window configurations successfully shifted indoor conditions toward acceptable comfort thresholds. These findings provide actionable design guidelines for enhancing livable space in tropical high-rise social housing.

The Giant Geode of Pulpí is a unique mineralogical phenomenon worldwide, remarkable for its large selenite gypsum crystals. Its recent development as a tourist site and inclusion on UNESCO’s Tentative World Heritage List, highlight the need to assess the impact of visits on its conservation. This study investigates airborne particle dynamics inside the Geode, focusing on tourist activity and natural ventilation. We measured deposition rates and composition of airborne particles using passive traps and a continuous laser-optical particle counter. Microenvironmental variables linked to ventilation, such as temperature and radon gas concentration (²²²Rn), were simultaneously monitored. Results show a predominance of fine particles (<5 >μm), which remain suspended longer and penetrate deeper into the cavity. Coarse particles (>5 μm) settle quickly, mainly near the Geode entrance. Chemically, most particles correspond to autochthonous mine minerals (celestine, siderite, quartz, and gypsum), though allochthonous materials such as non-mineral fibers introduced by visitors were also identified. Natural ventilation strongly influences particle behavior. Fine particle concentrations (<5 >μm) rise (i.e., up 30×103 particles/L) when the renewal of air with the exterior, characterized by lower suspended particle concentrations, is restricted. Under these conditions, the particle remobilization induced by visitors causes a higher accumulative effect of fine particles in the mine-Geode atmosphere. Autochthonous mining debris and dust is the main source of coarse particles, with concentrations peaking during visiting hours due to resuspension by tourist movement, up to 2,000 particles/Lfor 5-10 mm particles and up to 400 particles/L for >10 mm. These findings provide a foundation for preventive conservation strategies. Adapting visitor pathways and access protocols could reduce particle resuspension and deposition, helping preserve the exceptional crystals of the Geode of Pulpí for future generations.

Electromyography (EMG) electrodes are critical for detecting and interpreting muscle activity, which is essential for operating prosthetic devices and wearable robots. Traditional EMG electrodes, however, often face limitations such as being uncomfortable, lacking stretchability, and wearing out quickly. To overcome these challenges, we developed an innovative EMG wristband with mesh electrodes created using charge-reverse electro writing (CREW). The wristband is tailored to fit the unique muscle distribution of the user, featuring a special fiber with a core/shell structure. The core, enriched with liquid metal nanoparticles (LM-NPs), ensures excellent electrical conductivity, while the thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) shell enhances flexibility, durability, and washability. The wristband is also designed for long-term comfort, with a breathable 3D scaffold structure that allows natural skin ventilation. Even under maximum strain, it maintains high signal clarity, achieving a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of over 30 decibels. The signals are processed through a machine learning algorithm, the multilayer perceptron (MLP), with minimal delay time, enabling smooth and human-like motor movements in prosthetic devices. This breakthrough addresses key challenges in traditional electrodes, providing a reliable, high-performance solution for wearable robotics and assistive technologies, with a focus on comfort, durability, and seamless integration into everyday life.