Natural Gas Flaring Research Articles

Extending Nighttime Combustion Source Detection Limits with Short Wavelength VIIRS Data

The Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) collects low light imaging data at night in five spectral bands. The best known of these is the day/night band (DNB) which uses light intensification for imaging of moonlit clouds in the visible and near-infrared (VNIR). The other four low light imaging bands are in the NIR and short-wave infrared (SWIR), designed for daytime imaging, which continue to collect data at night. VIIRS nightfire (VNF) tests each nighttime pixel for the presence of sub-pixel IR emitters across six spectral bands with two bands each in three spectral ranges: NIR, SWIR, and MWIR. In pixels with detection in two or more bands, Planck curve fitting leads to the calculation of temperature, source area, and radiant heat using physical laws. An analysis of January 2018 global VNF found that inclusion of the NIR and SWIR channels results in a doubling of the VNF pixels with temperature fits over the detection numbers involving the MWIR. The addition of the short wavelength channels extends detection limits to smaller source areas across a broad range of temperatures. The VIIRS DNB has even lower detection limits for combustion sources, reaching 0.001 m2 at 1800 K, a typical temperature for a natural gas flare. Comparison of VNF tallies and DNB fire detections in a 2015 study area in India found the DNB had 15 times more detections than VNF. The primary VNF error sources are false detections from high energy particle detections (HEPD) in space and radiance saturation on some of the most intense events. The HEPD false detections are largely eliminated in the VNF output by requiring multiband detections for the calculation of temperature and source size. Radiance saturation occurs in about 1% of the VNF detections and occurs primarily in the M12 spectral band. Inclusion of the radiances affected by saturation results in temperature and source area calculation errors. Saturation is addressed by identifying the presence of saturation and excluding those radiances from the Planck curve fitting. The extremely low detection limits for the DNB indicates that a DNB fire detection algorithm could reveal vast numbers of combustion sources that are undetectable in longer wavelength VIIRS data. The caveats with the DNB combustion source detection capability is that it should be restricted to pixels that are outside the zone of known VIIRS detected electric lighting.

Quantifying the carbon conversion efficiency and emission indices of a lab-scale natural gas flare with internal coflows of air or steam

To better understand the effect of air- and steam-assist on flaring operations on carbon conversion efficiency and pollutant emissions, a lab-scale coflow burner constructed of two concentric circular tubes was used. Natural gas at 20 SLPM flowed through the annular space and increasing amounts of air or steam were added through the inner tube until flame extinction was invoked. The combustion products were captured by an exhaust hood and analyzed using a gas chromatograph to measure the concentrations of CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, CO and CO2. A photoacoustic extinctiometer and a NOx analyzer were used to measure black carbon and NOx concentrations, respectively. A challenge associated with the experiments was to accurately resolve stark transitions in conversion efficiency and orders of magnitude change in key emissions. Results indicated that the addition of air or steam to a natural gas jet diffusion flame caused a sudden collapse in carbon conversion efficiency, occurring at a coflow-fuel gas mass flow ratio of 1.8 for steam and 5.0 for air. As was expected, the CO2 emission indices for both air and steam coflow followed their respective carbon conversion efficiency trends. Conversely, the total unburned hydrocarbon emission indices increased with the reduction in carbon conversion efficiency. NOx emission indices for air and steam coflow were shown to decrease by an order of magnitude compared to the unassisted flame. For air coflow this occurred before the collapse in carbon conversion efficiency, while for steam coflow this occurred concurrently. Black carbon emission indices decreased rapidly by three orders of magnitude for both air and steam coflow. For both these lab-scale air and steam assisted flares there was a range of mass flow rates of the assist fluid that resulted in high combustion efficiency and low pollutant emissions.

Shale Boom: The Barnett Shale Play and Fort Worth by Diana Davids Hinton

Reviewed by: Shale Boom: The Barnett Shale Play and Fort Worth by Diana Davids Hinton Joe Pratt Shale Boom: The Barnett Shale Play and Fort Worth. By Diana Davids Hinton. (Fort Worth: TCU Press, 2018. Pp. 230. Notes, bibliography, index.) Diana Davids Hinton has written an interesting, informative book about the origins of the shale revolution and its impacts on the region surrounding Fort Worth. She brings to this work a keen understanding of [End Page 136] her topic drawn from a lifetime of research and writing about the Texas oil industry. She makes good use of interviews with numerous insiders in the oil industry, information about federal and state regulatory agencies, and numerous publications about shale gas and oil. As a welcome bonus, she frames her study with the general history of the development of oil and gas in North Texas. Much of the first half of Shale Boom discusses the origins of modern fracking. The accounts of its technological origins are analyzed in greater detail in other published works, but Hinton’s history adds human dimensions with portraits of individuals active in the Barnett shale and activists in Fort Worth who oppose the expansion of drilling in the metropolitan area. Hinton reserves star billing for “the father of fracking,” George Mitchell, who earned this status with a determined seventeen-year crusade to create a fracking process capable of producing natural gas and oil from the Barnett shale. Hinton gives a brief account of “old-style” fracking in the 1940s before discussing the two key innovations, slickwater fracking and horizontal drilling, which helped create modern fracking. Mitchell invested considerable time and capital in his quest, but he was not alone. Federal government aid came in the form of subsidies for drilling deep gas wells after years of gas shortages led to the passage of the Natural Gas Policy Act of 1978. Additional government support came from the nonprofit Gas Research Institute, which conducted valuable research with funding from taxes on the interstate shipments of natural gas. Innovators from within Mitchell Energy and other companies also helped develop this technology, notably Devon Energy, whose aggressive application of directional drilling increased production. The second half of Shale Boom moves out of the oil fields and into downtown Fort Worth, where “neighborhood drilling” began in earnest in 2006. After the realization that the sweetest spot to drill for gas might well be under the city, the rush to drill there began. This intensified questions about the social costs of fracking, including wastewater disposal and its possible ties to earthquakes; the flaring of natural gas; increased air and water pollution; and the noise, damaged streets, and crowding that altered the ambiance of Fort Worth, which many consider among the best cities in the state to live in or visit. Hinton notes the significant economic benefits from fracking, including thousands of jobs; revenue for local, state, and national governments; and money for landowners from leases and royalties. Also impressive and important have been the benefits to the nation, which include far less dependence on imported oil; the reemergence of the United States as a leading global producer of oil and gas; a surplus of natural gas that has enabled the United States to become an exporter of instead of an importer; and a strong boost to the nation’s chemical industry. Proponents of fracking tout these benefits, while their opponents [End Page 137] decry its far-reaching environmental impacts. In a chapter entitled “Fear of Fracking,” the author sorts through the arguments on both sides. The self-interest of those working to reap the economic rewards of fracking collides with the fears of those who must live with its social and environmental costs. This chapter gives the reader a serious look into the ongoing conflict between the two points of view and a sense of the complexities that stand in the way of compromise. America’s energy history offers many examples that uncertainty about a new technology can be expected in the early years of its application. When problems arise, uncertainty can become fear, slowing or even stopping development. The accident at Three Mile Island, for example, put nuclear power on hold; fatal explosions...

Permian Pulse: Using Satellite Imagery Analytics To Track the World’s Busiest Oil Play

A trip on Highway 285 between Fort Stockton, Texas, and Carlsbad, New Mexico, is both fascinating and horrifying for the average commuter in the US desert Southwest. The 140-mile stretch of two-lane road can take hours to traverse on a given day as trucks hauling crude oil, sand, water, chemicals, and petroleum equipment overload the battered, sun-fried pavement. The mostly flat, dusty landscape is populated by drilling rigs, workover rigs, and gas flares as far as the eye can see. Even on the highway’s best day, most traffic laws are ignored as oilfield workers in pickup trucks race from site to site. The industrial chaos along the corridor serves as a snapshot of the now multiyear industry boom in the Delaware Basin and greater, 75,000-sq-mile Permian Basin. Keeping track of it all has become a massive challenge for operators, service firms, and midstream companies that make the basin move. They work in an environment that is changing daily, and they can’t afford to be caught by surprise when hydraulically fracturing a well, building infrastructure, delivering equipment to a remote area, or prospecting for new business. An emerging solution: an intelligent, continually updated view from above—or satellite imagery analytics. Companies such as Sourcewater, Planet, and West-wood Global Energy Group are stepping up to monitor the world’s busiest oil play by leveraging relatively inexpensive satellite technology and machine learning. Application of satellite imagery in the oil and gas industry is nothing new. It has been used by companies to monitor remote facilities. Market observers have used the technology to assess global oil supplies by tracking tanker traffic and storage levels. The World Bank has used it to estimate emissions from the flaring of natural gas and oil output by the Islamic State. The real breakthrough is in merging this capability with artificial intelligence and advanced analytics to aid planning for development, production, and logistics while providing competitor intelligence and market research. Development is still in the early stages as companies refine their models to produce the most reliable information possible, and products are just now being rolled out to clients. Finding Water in the Desert An early entrant in the satellite imagery analytics space, Sourcewater’s primary objective is to serve as an online data analytics platform and marketplace for oilfield water sourcing, recycling, and disposal. Founded in 2014 as part of MIT’s Energy Ventures program, Sourcewater “is really about providing oilfield water market intelligence” to its clients, which often are operators planning their completions and production work and logistics or midstream water companies determining where to add new capacity, explained Josh Adler, Sourcewater chief executive officer. Relatively new to the industry himself, Adler’s career path includes founding one of the Internet’s first match-making sites and serving as chief speechwriter to former US Treasury Secretary Paul O’Neill.

Associated natural gas flare in the integrated market of the southern cone

Reducing greenhouse gas is a major challenge. The oil and gas industry must contribute to this goal, primarily by controlling natural gas flaring and venting, which is a multibillion revenue loss. More than 4000 billion cubic feet of gas is flared every year in the world, leading to almost 400 million tonnes of greenhouse gases. In Latin America, 7.4% of the total gas produced in the region is flared or vented. This article evaluates the status of the flaring and venting of gas in Latin America, focusing on the southern cone countries (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile). It also develops a long-term perspective analysis for the region, using an integrated optimization model. Findings indicate that, when transport infrastructure is limited or there is no domestic demand to absorb the associated gas, flaring becomes the least-cost solution in the optimization model. This can be critical in the next decade, due to the excess gas supply or the lack of gas demand to absorb it. Particularly, the natural gas demand associated with the electricity generation in Brazil is reduced by the hydroelectric expansion and a sluggish economy. Therefore, policies must promote options to monetize the stranded gas.

Shale Gas Development, Natural Gas Flaring, and Pediatric Asthma Hospitalizations from 2000 to 2010 in Texas, U.S.A.

Background: Current estimates indicate that 4.5 million Texans live within 1 mile of at least one shale gas development (SGD) site, yet the respiratory health effects of residing near this industry remain unclear. SGD activities are associated with decreased air quality, including known respiratory irritants. This study aims to quantify the association between specific SGD activities and pediatric asthma hospitalizations in Texas.Methods: We leverage a 32 million record database of Texas inpatient hospitalizations to examine the association between natural gas development and pediatric respiratory hospitalizations via multilevel logistic models. In contrast to previous studies, we implement a quasi-experimental design to account for pre-existing spatiotemporal asthma hospitalization trends. We then use a database of monthly production reports to assess the heterogeneity of impact from drilling-specific exposures including drilling type and gas flaring activities.Results: We find that any drilling yields odds ratios ranging from 1.13 (95% CI: 0.99, 1.30) to 1.86 (95% CI: 1.57, 2.22) depending on age groups. Our results demonstrate that conventional drilling (OR: 2.02; 95% CI: 1.69, 2.41) may yield a higher risk for pediatric asthma hospitalizations than unconventional drilling (OR: 1.63; 95% CI: 1.33, 2.00). Additionally, flaring activities are consistently associated with pediatric asthma hospitalizations across multiple age groups, ranging from 1.09 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.22) to 1.54 (95% CI: 1.32, 1.78). These results hold across multiple sensitivity analyses.Conclusion: Pediatric asthma hospitalizations are increased with SGD and are similarly affected by conventional and unconventional drilling. Flaring may be a potential pathway for this association.

Dynamics of morpho-physiological characteristics of Cassia tora L. (Fabaceae) in oil field pollution stress environment

Flaring of natural gas is an environmental degrading phenomena and effect on texture of the atmosphere. Higher atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) changes plant morphological as well as biochemical composition, leading to nitrogen limitation for the plant. Cassia tora, a common weed, was selected to measure the impact of gas flaring in two group gathering stations (GGSs) of Sivasagar district of Assam, India. Epidermal peels as well as scanning electron microscopy observation revealed possible changes in leaf epidermal traits of the plant. CO2 was recorded as the dominant atmospheric gases in nearby areas of gas flaring sites. Apart from this, significant reduction in nitrogen (%), specific leaf area (SLA) (mm2 mg−1), chlorophyll (mg−g) and stomatal pore length (µm) as well as increases in leaf dry matter content (LDMC), leaf thickness (mm) and carbon percentage of C. tora were recorded under CO2 stress environment at both the GGSs. Simulation studies conducted under open-top chamber (OTC) also revealed similar trend.

Electrooxidation of Propylene to Acrolein

Short chain alkanes and alkenes (C1-4) typically have little economic value and are difficult to transport since they are gases. Because of this, these hydrocarbons are of so low value that they are often flared during extraction of oil.1 This talk investigates electrochemically partially oxidizing these materials to high-value liquid products, thus increasing both the value and ease in transportation. If the oxidation is cathodic enough (< ~ +0.9 V vs. RHE) this can be combined with a standard oxygen reduction reaction cathode in a PEM fuel cell type approach to produce a device that does not consume electrical power, but actually has the potential to produce a small amount of power.2 Specifically this talk focuses on partial electrochemical oxidation of propylene to a variety of high value products such as acrolein, propylene oxide, propylene glycol, and acrylic acid and low value products such as CO2, and acetic acid. Using a Pd catalyst, we analyse the effects of pre-treatment, potential, pH and other factors in optimizing high value products while minimizing low value products. As shown below, one of the most promising findings is a high degree of acrolein selectivity at 0.9 V vs RHE in acidic solutions. The figure below shows that we can achieve stable electrochemical oxidation of propylene for 1 hour and produce acrolein with a selectivity of near 80%. Elvidge, C. D.; Ziskin, D.; Baugh, K. E.; Tuttle, B. T.; Ghosh, T.; Pack, D. W.; Erwin, E. H.; Zhizhin, M., A Fifteen Year Record of Global Natural Gas Flaring Derived from Satellite Data. Energies 2009, 2 (3), 595-622.Yamanaka, I., Active control of catalysis and product selectivity by a fuel cell system. Research on Chemical Intermediates 2006, 32 (3-4), 373-38 Figure 1

Investigation of a methane flare during the excavation of the Silvan irrigation tunnel, Turkey

Mechanized methods are being increasingly used in tunnel excavations to such an extent that to ensure safe construction and the economic viability of projects the need for design-stage geotechnical studies has considerably increased. However, unexpected problems, such as gas inflow, can be experienced during excavation when the geological conditions are insufficiently investigated. In fact, even if construction is taking place in a known oil–natural gas basin or coal-bearing strata, the possibility of methane flare/explosion events can be minimized if a suitable excavation method and equipment are used. However, little published literature is available on this topic, resulting in the potential problem of encounters with sources of methane during construction that have not been considered in the planning of the tunneling operations. We have studied a methane (natural gas) flare incident that occurred in 2015 during the excavation by full-face hard rock tunnel boring machine of the Silvan irrigation tunnel, south-eastern Turkey. During the planning and pre-construction stages no consideration was given to the fact that the tunnel passes through a natural gas basin and, consequently, the selection of excavation method and machine equipment was made without taking into account the high possibility of natural gas being present. During excavation a significant methane gas flare occurred, resulting in 13 workers being injured and abandonment of the project. Subsequent investigations revealed that the proposed route of the tunnel passed through a natural gas basin and that Turkish Petroleum Corporation (TPAO) had carried out natural gas exploration in the area. Here we provide details on the geological background and the flare incident itself and come to the conclusion that the pre-construction ground investigations for this project were grossly inadequate. We also suggest that in order to facilitate economical and safe tunnel construction, consideration should always be given to the possible presence of methane and other gases at the ground investigation stages of tunneling projects and that all previous geological and technical studies related to the study area should be taken into consideration during the pre-construction stage.

The potential role of natural gas flaring in meeting greenhouse gas mitigation targets

In this paper, we compare 2015 satellite-derived natural gas (gas) flaring data with the greenhouse gas reduction targets presented by those countries in their nationally determined contributions (NDC) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Paris Agreement. Converting from flaring to utilization is an attractive option for reducing emissions. The analysis rates the potential role of reduction of gas flaring in meeting country-specific NDC targets. The analysis includes three categories of flaring: upstream in oil and gas production areas, downstream at refineries and transport facilities, and industrial (e.g., coal mines, landfills, water treatment plants, etc.). Upstream flaring dominates with 90.6% of all flaring. Global flaring represents less than 2% of the NDC reduction target. However, most gas flaring is concentrated in a limited set of countries, leaving the possibility that flaring reduction could contribute a sizeable portion of the NDC targets for specific countries. States that could fully meet their NDC targets through gas flaring reductions include: Yemen (240%), Algeria (197%), and Iraq (136%). Countries which could meet a substantial portion of their NDC targets with gas flaring reductions include: Gabon (94%), Algeria (48%), Venezuela (47%), Iran (34%), and Sudan (33%). On the other hand, several countries with large flared gas volumes could only meet a small portion of their NDC targets from gas flaring reductions, including the Russian Federation (2.4%) and the USA (0.1%). These findings may be useful in guiding national level efforts to meet NDC greenhouse gas reduction targets.

Effect of natural gas flaring upon the butterfly, Eurema hecabe (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) and its host plant, Cassia tora (Fabales: Fabaceae) in two group gathering stations of Assam, India: an approach of environmental monitoring.

Apart from other pollutants, flaring of natural gas adds carbon dioxide into the environment and changes the atmospheric composition, including temperature and humidity. As a major gaseous product, carbon dioxide changes plant structural components as well as herbivores, i.e., insect by dilution of nitrogen under such circumstances. Present analysis demonstrated the impact of gas flaring upon adjoining biota especially Eurema hecabe butterfly and its host plant, Cassia tora in some wells (group gathering stations) of Assam, India. Analysis, pertaining from the current investigation, documented higher carbon dioxide as well as temperature in the studied flaring sites. Apart from this, reduction of leaf nitrogen, SLA, and chlorophyll with increasing in LDMC, thickness, and carbon in the studied plant as well as poor developmental rate, RGR, ECD with high RCR in insect indicated severe impact of flaring in those areas. Simulation studies with different concentration of CO2 in open top chamber on the plant and butterfly also revealed similar trend of results.

Process Design of Associated Natural Gas to Dimethyl Ether Production Via Direct Synthesis

The flaring of associated natural gas in Nigeria results in environmental degradation and economic wastage. Thus, several routes for monetizing this associated gas, especially Gas to Liquid processes, have been proposed and researched extensively. Amongst these, is the Gas to Dimethyl ether (GTDME) process. Dimethyl ether (DME) is a clean and economical diesel-alternative fuel which has properties that are similar to those of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and therefore, can also be used as a fuel in power generation, home heating, and cooking. This paper evaluates the technical and economic viability of converting stranded and associated gases to Dimethyl ether via direct synthesis using associated gas from the Niger Delta region as feed, to serve as a route for the stoppage of natural gas flaring and underutilization in Nigeria. The multi-function single reactor plant was modeled with Aspen Hysys Process Simulator (version 8.6) and an economic analysis was carried out, using bare module costing, to determine the profitability of the plant, taking note of the Dimethyl ether market and price. The simulated plant produced ready-to-use Dimethyl ether with a molar purity of 97.47% and an annual revenue of $23 million at the current cost price of $0.99 per kg liquid DME; thus, proving the profitability of the Gas-To-Dimethyl ether plant in tackling the gas-flaring problem.

The Direct Catalytic Oxidation of Methane to Methanol-A Critical Assessment.

Despite the large number of disparate approaches for the direct selective partial oxidation of methane, none of them has translated into an industrial process. The oxidation of methane to methanol is a difficult, but intriguing and rewarding, task as it has the potential to eliminate the prevalent natural gas flaring by providing novel routes to its valorization. This Review considers the synthesis of methanol and methanol derivatives from methane by homogeneous and heterogeneous pathways. By establishing the severe limitations related to the direct catalytic synthesis of methanol from methane, we highlight the vastly superior performance of systems which produce methanol derivatives or incorporate specific measures, such as the use of multicomponent catalysts to stabilize methanol. We thereby identify methanol protection as being indispensable for future research on homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.

Extension to multiple temperatures of a three-reaction global kinetic model for methane dehydroaromatization

An alternative to flaring of surplus natural gas is methane dehydroaromatization (MDA) to benzene (C6H6) over a bifunctional molybdenum/zeolite catalyst. Byproducts include H2, C2H4, and naphthalene (C10H8). While an MDA detailed elementary reaction mechanism is now available, a simpler global kinetic model is more useful for engineering and screening calculations. A literature three-step reaction model exists but with rate constants only at 950 K. In the current work, Arrhenius parameters for the three global reactions have been determined over 948–1023 K based on a regression of major gas species concentration data generated from Chemkin® simulations of a packed bed reactor running the detailed MDA mechanism. In addition, the three-step model is used to illustrate the need to remove H2, perhaps through a membranous reactor wall, in order to overcome strong equilibrium CH4 conversion limitations. Such H2 removal, though, improves C10H8 selectivity at the expense of C6H6.

Factors controlling black carbon distribution in the Arctic

Abstract. We investigate the sensitivity of black carbon (BC) in the Arctic, including BC concentration in snow (BCsnow, ng g−1) and surface air (BCair, ng m−3), as well as emissions, dry deposition, and wet scavenging using the global three-dimensional (3-D) chemical transport model (CTM) GEOS-Chem. We find that the model underestimates BCsnow in the Arctic by 40 % on average (median = 11.8 ng g−1). Natural gas flaring substantially increases total BC emissions in the Arctic (by ∼ 70 %). The flaring emissions lead to up to 49 % increases (0.1–8.5 ng g−1) in Arctic BCsnow, dramatically improving model comparison with observations (50 % reduction in discrepancy) near flaring source regions (the western side of the extreme north of Russia). Ample observations suggest that BC dry deposition velocities over snow and ice in current CTMs (0.03 cm s−1 in the GEOS-Chem) are too small. We apply the resistance-in-series method to compute a dry deposition velocity (vd) that varies with local meteorological and surface conditions. The resulting velocity is significantly larger and varies by a factor of 8 in the Arctic (0.03–0.24 cm s−1), which increases the fraction of dry to total BC deposition (16 to 25 %) yet leaves the total BC deposition and BCsnow in the Arctic unchanged. This is largely explained by the offsetting higher dry and lower wet deposition fluxes. Additionally, we account for the effect of the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen (WBF) process in mixed-phase clouds, which releases BC particles from condensed phases (water drops and ice crystals) back to the interstitial air and thereby substantially reduces the scavenging efficiency of clouds for BC (by 43–76 % in the Arctic). The resulting BCsnow is up to 80 % higher, BC loading is considerably larger (from 0.25 to 0.43 mg m−2), and BC lifetime is markedly prolonged (from 9 to 16 days) in the Arctic. Overall, flaring emissions increase BCair in the Arctic (by ∼ 20 ng m−3), the updated vd more than halves BCair (by ∼ 20 ng m−3), and the WBF effect increases BCair by 25–70 % during winter and early spring. The resulting model simulation of BCsnow is substantially improved (within 10 % of the observations) and the discrepancies of BCair are much smaller during the snow season at Barrow, Alert, and Summit (from −67–−47 % to −46–3 %). Our results point toward an urgent need for better characterization of flaring emissions of BC (e.g., the emission factors, temporal, and spatial distribution), extensive measurements of both the dry deposition of BC over snow and ice, and the scavenging efficiency of BC in mixed-phase clouds. In addition, we find that the poorly constrained precipitation in the Arctic may introduce large uncertainties in estimating BCsnow. Doubling precipitation introduces a positive bias approximately as large as the overall effects of flaring emissions and the WBF effect; halving precipitation produces a similarly large negative bias.

A micro-refinery to reduce associated natural gas flaring

Gas flaring accelerates climate change with greenhouse gases but also harms the environment with other pollutants such as H2S, carbon sulfides, NOx and metals. Methane is a valuable energy vector and converting the associated gas from thousands of wells to liquid fuels would reduce the environmental footprint of oil field operations. Micro-gas-to-liquids technology (GtL) reduces flared natural gas and emissions while producing valuable diesel. Integrating a high pressure syngas step with Fischer–Tropsch (FT) in a single vessel reduces investment and operating costs, which is now an insurmountable hurdle that face producers exploiting wells far from gas pipeline infrastructure. We have demonstrated that coupling these two technologies produces C7+ liquid. Furthermore, the high pressure POX reactor can convert 96% of the methane while producing a H2/CO ratio of 2, which is ideal for FT, at 900°C. With a capacity of 100MCFd−1, one micro-refinery unit can reduce CO2 emissions by1.2kty−1.

Identifying Material and Device Targets for a Flare Gas Recovery System Utilizing Electrochemical Conversion of Methane to Methanol

Natural gas flaring causes enormous damage to the environment, in addition to the wasted energy. The importance of this problem is highlighted by an initiative by the United Nations to end flaring by 2030. There exists an immediate need for identifying routes for converting flare into usable energy. In this study, we propose a scheme that at the core utilizes an electrochemical cell to convert methane into methanol, an easily transportable fuel. The electrochemical cell uses electricity provided by solar photovoltaics to power the electrochemical cell. We carry out a detailed techno-economic analysis of the entire system and analyze the merits and demerits of the proposed approach as compared with other flare gas recovery systems, gas-to-liquid (GTL), electricity generation with gas turbine, gas compression system, and electricity generation by solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The developed model shows that the current state-of-the-art materials available for different system components, proton conductor, an...

Black Carbon Emissions from Associated Natural Gas Flaring.

Approximately 150 billion cubic meters (BCM) of natural gas is flared and vented in the world annually, emitting greenhouse gases and other pollutants with no energy benefit. About 7 BCM per year is flared in the United States, and half is from North Dakota alone. There are few emission measurements from associated gas flares and limited black carbon (BC) emission factors have been previously reported from the field. Emission plumes from 26 individual flares in the Bakken formation in North Dakota were sampled. Methane, carbon dioxide, and BC were measured simultaneously, allowing the calculation of BC mass emission factors using the carbon balance method. Particle optical absorption was measured using a three-wavelength particle soot absorption photometer (PSAP) and BC particle number and mass concentrations were measured with a single particle soot photometer. The BC emission factors varied over 2 orders of magnitude, with an average and uncertainty range of 0.14 ± 0.12 g/kg hydrocarbons in associated gas and a median of 0.07 g/kg which represents a lower bound on these measurements. An estimation of the BC emission factor derived from PSAP absorption provides an upper bound at 3.1 g/kg. These results are lower than previous estimations and laboratory measurements. The BC mass absorption cross section was 16 ± 12 m(2)/g BC at 530 nm. The average absorption Ångström exponent was 1.2 ± 0.8, suggesting that most of the light absorbing aerosol measured was black carbon and the contribution of light absorbing organic carbon was small.

Predictive Modeling of Gas Production, Utilization and Flaring in Nigeria using &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;TSRM&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;i&amp;gt;TSNN&amp;lt;/i&amp;gt;: A Comparative Approach

Since the discovery of oil and gas in Nigeria in 1956, much gas has been flared because the operators pay little or no concern to its utilization, and as such, trillions of dollars have been lost. In this paper, a model is proposed using Time Series Regression Model (TSRM) and Time Series Neural Network (TSNN) to model the production, utilization and flaring of natural gas in Nigeria with the ultimate aim of observing the trend of each activity. The results show that TSNN has better predictive and forecasting capabilities compared to TSRN. It is also observed that the higher the hidden neurons, the lower the error generated by the TSNN.

Environmental Implications of Flaring and Venting in Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production

It is believed that production of crude oil and natural gas without flaring and venting is neither technically nor economically feasible. In the face of this challenge, it is pertinent to understand the technical, economic, environmental, and social effects of flaring and venting in the production of crude oil and natural gas. This paper is a review of the role of flaring and venting in the production of oil and gas and an exposition of the environmental consequences of flaring and venting with respect to the production of crude oil and natural gas. The study exhaustively and systematically revealed the global and local effects of flaring and venting of natural gas on the environment and thereafter suggested various mechanisms through which flaring and venting could be drastically reduced using commercial models, regulation, new technologies and re-injection.