The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has emerged as a promising tool to maximize agricultural productivity and is useful in precision and sustainable insect pest control, with less impact on the environment and human health. In this review, we revealed how UAVs are valuable in dealing with pesticide resistance issues, reducing the ecological footprint of practices during pest management, and how they are safer for natural enemies. These UAVs have the ability to considerably reduce the overall dosage of insecticides with targeted delivery, which minimizes the risk of resistance development in insect pests against tested pesticides. Moreover, the addition of advanced technologies, such as computer vision systems, allows UAVs to optimize pesticide usage based on real-time data. The delivery of biological control agents by UAVs further supports ecological sustainability. However, a careful consideration is needed on the impact of UAV-applied chemicals on non-target organisms and ecosystems. To minimize drift, strategies such as optimized flight parameters, use of suitable nozzles, and integration of adjuvants should be adopted, which are important to ensure environmental safety. Future research on UAV technology, application methods, pesticide formulation, and natural enemy delivery is crucial to maximize the benefits of this innovative technique and ensure the safety of agroecosystems. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Insecticide applications can have adverse effects on not only target pests, but also beneficial arthropods. In this study, we examined such effects on a key tea pest, Ectropis grisescens, and its natural enemy, Arma custos. Laboratory toxicity bioassays were conducted and we evaluated the toxicity profiles toward each insect species of three commonly used insecticides, bifenthrin, chlorfenapyr, and emamectin benzoate. At maximum field-recommended concentrations, all three insecticides were unsafe for first to fourth instars of A. custos. Bifenthrin and emamectin benzoate also showed considerable toxicity to the fifth instar, whereas chlorfenapyr exhibited relative safety. Selectivity toxicity ratios indicated that all the tested insecticides were less toxic to the predator than to the pest. After exposure to sublethal concentrations (LC20), the functional response models of fifth-instar A. custos were still consistently Holling II in all groups. However, insecticide exposure significantly prolonged handling time (Th) when predators fed on second- and third-instar E. grisescens, and reduced their predation capacity (a/Th) and maximum daily predation (Na-max). By contrast, when preying on fourth-instar E. grisescens, exposure to insecticides increased the instantaneous attack rate (a) and a/Th of A. custos. Notably, chlorfenapyr shortened Th and enhanced both a/Th and Na-max on this prey instar. This study highlights the potential of integrating A. custos with selective insecticides for the sustainable management of E. grisescens in tea plantations. To maximize pest control efficacy, we recommend releasing A. custos during early stages of E. grisescens infestation, particularly following the application of insecticides exhibiting favorable selectivity profiles. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Interactions between pests and their natural enemies play a central role in ecological balance and sustainable pest management. In the present work, we examine a prey-predator system in which the predator population experiences intra-specific competition and receives an external food supplement. The feeding mechanism of the predator follows a Holling type-III functional response. We demonstrate that the proposed formulation admits a unique, globally positive solution and investigate the stability of its equilibria. Analytical exploration reveals the occurrence of distinct bifurcation phenomena, including transcritical and saddle-node transitions. Numerical investigations further illustrate the emergence of hysteresis loops, indicating bistability within specific parameter ranges. Experimental observations concerning the predation of Bemisia tabaci by Orius albidipennis validate the Holling type-III assumption and serve to parameterize the theoretical model. The findings underscore the dual impact of additional food and predator competition in shaping biological control outcomes and improving pest suppression efficiency.

Weed infestation remains a major constraint to sustainable crop production and ecosystem management because weeds compete with cultivated and native plants for water, nutrients, light and space. Conventional weed control methods, particularly repeated herbicide use, can contribute to environmental contamination, residue concerns, non-target effects and the development of herbicide resistance. Biological control offers an alternative approach by using living organisms or naturally derived agents to suppress weed growth, reproduction and spread. This review summarises the role of different biocontrol agents, including insects, fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes, in the management of terrestrial and aquatic weeds. Classical biological control, augmentation, bioherbicide use and the application of natural enemies are discussed with examples involving major invasive weeds such as parthenium, water hyacinth, lantana, saltcedar, purple loosestrife, prickly pear, St. Johnswort and salvinia. Microbial agents, especially fungal pathogens and selected bacterial strains, are also considered for their potential to provide host-specific weed suppression. The manuscript further highlights the emerging but still limited role of nematodes in weed management. Although biological control can reduce dependence on synthetic herbicides and support integrated weed management, its performance depends on host specificity, environmental conditions, agent establishment, formulation stability and ecological safety. The review emphasises that biocontrol should be used as one component of an integrated weed management strategy rather than as a complete replacement for other control methods. Further research is needed to improve field reliability, ecological risk assessment, formulation development and large-scale deployment of biocontrol agents for sustainable weed management.

Gut bacteria in insects play critical roles in host physiology, contributing to both beneficial and harmful functions. However, the functional role of gut bacteria in Tecia solanivora, a major pest of potato crops in Central and South America, remains poorly understood. This study provides the first genomic and functional characterization of bacteria isolated from the gut of T. solanivora, focusing on their contributions to host fitness and their potential applications in pest control. Seven bacterial strains were identified: Duffyella gerundensis Ts1, Enterobacter ludwigii Ts2, Serratia quinivorans Ts3, Duffyella sp. Ts4, Rahnella variigena ATs1, Rahnella variigena ATs2, and Stenotrophomonas sp. ATs4. Genomic analyses revealed genes implicated in digestion and nutrient acquisition (e.g., ribABCDE operon for riboflavin synthesis and the ISA gene for isoamylase synthesis), insecticide detoxification (e.g., nfsAB encoding nitroreductase), and protection against natural enemies (e.g., impABCEFGHJLM operon for type VI secretion system). Experimental validation confirmed the activity of key functions. Notably, E. ludwigii Ts2 and S. quinivorans Ts3 exhibited entomopathogenic activity against their host insect, causing larval mortality rates of 63.3% and 40.8%, respectively. Notably, R. variigena ATs1 and Rahnella variigena ATs2 demonstrated phytopathogenic activity against potato tubers (97% damage), identifying them as opportunistic pathogens. These findings advance understanding of insect-microbe interactions, identify promising candidates for biological pest control, and highlight the importance of comprehensive safety assessments in agricultural applications.

Cannibalism and intraguild predation (IGP) are common interactions among predators that can influence the effectiveness of biological control agents. The minute pirate bug Buchananiella whitei is a recently commerciali sed biocontrol agent in New Zealand, but its intraspecific predation and interactions with potentially co-occurring predatory mites remain poorly understood. This study examined cannibalism within B. whitei, as well as IGP between first-instar B. whitei nymphs and adult females of seven predatory mite species (Phytoseiidae and Laelapidae), using observations in enclosed setups with emphasis on the role of extraguild prey availability (dried fruit mite Carpoglyphus lactis). Both cannibalism and IGP were observed, and their occurrence was strongly influenced by extraguild prey availability. No predation on B. whitei eggs was observed in either cannibalism or IGP. Cannibalism occurred only in adult-nymph interactions, and its prevalence was greatly reduced by the presence of extraguild prey. IGP was more frequent in the absence of extraguild prey. First-instar B. whitei nymphs preyed on most predatory mite species, but reciprocal predation was only observed with Neoseiulus cucumeris and Stratiolaelaps scimitus. Differences in body size among predator species partly contributed to the observed outcomes. These findings indicate that although cannibalism and IGP can occur in systems involving B. whitei, their ecological significance is probably limited when alternative preyare available. Predatory mites are therefore unlikely to substantially suppress B. whitei populations. A better understanding of these trophic interactions will improve the use of B. whitei and other natural enemies in biological control programs. © 2026 The Author(s). Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

The growing demand for sustainable agriculture has reinforced the central role of integrated pest management (IPM) in organic greenhouse production, particularly for high-value crops such as tomatoes, which remain highly susceptible to the South American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). In this study, we investigated the synergistic contributions of flower strips garden cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus; Asterales: Asteraceae) and big marigold (Tagetes erecta; Asterales: Asteraceae) together with key natural enemies, including the tomato mirid Nesidiocoris tenuis (Hemiptera: Miridae), the common green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), and the egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), toward suppressing T. absoluta under controlled greenhouse conditions. We evaluated the factorial combinations of two flower species (cosmos and marigold), two flower statuses (present or absent), and three natural enemy species (2 × 2 × 3 = 12 treatment combinations). At the start of the experiment, 10 tomato plants per plot were randomly selected and tagged. The same plants were assessed weekly for damage, natural enemy abundance, and fecundity. T. absoluta damage was significantly reduced by use of the flower strips, the garden cosmos being the most effective by 10-15% in reducing the damage due to its extended and more consistent bloom time, which improved natural enemy retention and performance. Damage was higher in all the non-floral controls. The natural enemy population density (per plant) and fecundity also showed significant increases in floral treatments, and cosmos and N. tenuis provided the highest suppression. Parasitism by T. chilonis was also higher in the flowers and positively correlated with the flower intensity. The results of this study indicate that habitat manipulation can be used as a powerful tool to help strengthen biological control in organic greenhouse systems, minimizing the use of chemical inputs. Our results provide actionable knowledge to improve the use of IPM in greenhouse tomato production due to the critical knowledge gaps between functional interactions of floral resources and natural enemies. Future work should include multi-year trials that will help better understand mechanisms and enable more widespread adoption of these practices. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Drosophila suzukii is a major invasive pest causing significant economic damage to soft-skinned fruits globally. Females lay eggs in healthy, ripening fruits, making chemical control often ineffective. Management still relies heavily on insecticides, raising concerns about resistance, environmental contamination, and harm to non-target species. This study evaluated eco-friendly alternatives, assessing the attractiveness of nine essential oil formulations from Citrus sinensis fresh zest (EO1), C. aurantium dried flowers (EO2), and C. limon fresh zest (EO3) under greenhouse conditions, and six formulations under field conditions. Three concentrations (0.1%, 0.05%, 0.02%) were tested. In the greenhouse, the 0.02% EO1 formulation (F1) captured twice as many females (5 ± 1.41) as the control. Field trials in a Moroccan raspberry plantation confirmed this, with F1 recording the highest female captures (20.33 ± 5.86), significantly exceeding the positive control (9.33 ± 8.33). Higher concentrations showed reduced attraction, indicating a dose-dependent response. GC–MS analysis identified D-Limonene as the dominant component (>90%). The formulation demonstrated selective attraction to D. suzukii, with minimal bycatch of pollinators and natural enemies. These results highlight the potential of low-concentration C. sinensis essential oil as an effective, selective, and environmentally compatible tool for integrated pest management of D. suzukii through mass trapping or monitoring.

Defensive symbioses in which beneficial microbes protect hosts from natural enemies are ubiquitous across animals and plants, but the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Field surveys and laboratory assays revealed that infection of the invasive whitefly Bemisia tabaci by the bacterial symbiont Rickettsia and plant begomovirus were positively correlated with each other but each negatively correlated with a parasitic fungal infection (Beauveria bassiana) in the host. We show that begomovirus conferred whitefly's resistance to the parasitic fungus by triggering the expression of chitin synthesis pathway genes in whiteflies, reinforcing the cuticle by promoting chitin production. The facultative symbiont Rickettsia facilitated cuticle formation and thereby induced physical defense against entomopathogenic fungus via metabolic cooperation with the obligate symbiont Portiera for the synthesis of phenylalanine and tyrosine in whiteflies, which is used to generate cuticular proteins and pigments. Mutation of chitinase and protease genes in B. bassiana impaired fungal infection of whiteflies. Inhibiting whitefly cuticle formation by repressing chitin and phenylalanine synthesis facilitated fungal infection. Thus, begomovirus and Rickettsia have convergent effects on cuticle defense in whiteflies by impacting distinct molecular pathways. Such defensive symbioses apparently contribute to B. tabaci fitness in the field and our findings reveal that interactions among the host, beneficial microbes, and pathogens have important implications for insect ecology and evolution. This study suggests avenues for pest management by leveraging defensive microbes and targeting the host cuticle.

Recent studies have highlighted the critical role of higher-order interactions (HOIs) in shaping the dynamics and biodiversity of complex ecosystems, particularly those modeled by the rock-paper-scissors (RPS) game. Although RPS systems have provided a classic framework for understanding cyclic competition and have been extended to include HOIs, the specific effects of these interactions on biodiversity in increasingly complex systems remain uncertain. In this paper, we examine how HOIs affect species dynamics in the spatial RPS system, linking HOIs to the local proportion of natural enemies. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we investigate how HOIs and mobility shape species evolution at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. Our simulations demonstrate that increasing the regulatory weight of HOIs reduces vacancies and sharpens the spiral patterns formed by the three species, which are sensitive to mobility. Basin entropy analysis further indicates that the regulatory weight of HOIs alters system unpredictability, which increases with stronger HOI effects. Additionally, extinction probability —a classic measure of biodiversity robustness— shows that HOIs can reduce extinction risk in high-mobility regimes by adjusting their weight and intensity. Our findings underscore the essential role of HOIs in sustaining biodiversity and suggest that our approaches can be extended to analyze multi-species systems with environmental heterogeneity.

Potential risks of entomopathogenic biopesticides to beneficial insects.

Landscape complexity shapes insect spatiotemporal population dynamics and trophic interactions. In this context, understanding seasonal and environmental patterns of potential resident natural enemies of novel polyphagous herbivores, such as the globally invasive fruit fly pest Drosophila suzukii, is fundamental for developing effective landscape-scale pest management strategies. Here, we investigated for the first time in the Andean Patagonian region of Argentina the spatiotemporal dynamics and parasitism of three resident parasitoids-Leptopilina heterotoma, Pachycrepoideus vindemiae, and Spalangia endius-with the potential to attack D. suzukii across heterogeneous landscape including fruit crops and surrounding natural habitats. All three parasitoid species were recorded across all environments, although their seasonal dynamics differed. L. heterotoma peaked in spring, P. vindemiae in summer, while S. endius showed a non-significant tendency toward higher activity in autumn. We further provide the first field-based evidence in the region that S. endius successfully attacks and completes development in D. suzukii, and that D. suzukii exploits wild fruit species as alternative hosts. These findings highlight the need for further research on the pupal parasitoid S. endius to assess its potential as a suitable candidate for the development of biological control strategies.

Aromia bungii (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) is a major wood-boring pest of rosaceous fruit trees, whose distribution and impact have expanded considerably in recent years. Conventional chemical control methods often cause environmental pollution, harm natural enemies and compromise fruit safety. In this study, an entomopathogenic fungal strain was isolated and purified from a mummified larva of A. bungii. Based on morphological characteristics and molecular identification, the fungus was identified as Beauveria bassiana and designated as SPT35. The SPT35 strain showed a daily radial growth rate of 3.95 mm/day on SDAY medium at 30 °C. By the tenth day of cultivation, the sporulation yield per unit area and total sporulation yield reached 5.15 × 108 spores/cm2 and 6.31 × 109 spores/Petri dish respectively. The virulence of SPT35 against both larvae and adults of A. bungii increased with conidia suspension concentration. At 1 × 107 spores/mL, the cumulative corrected mortality rates for first- to third-instar larvae after 10 days reached 95.83%, 100% and 95.24%, respectively, with lethal concentration (LC50) values of 7.19 × 102, 1.51 × 104 and 1.35 × 105 spores/mL. For adults, the cumulative corrected mortality exceeded 50% after 8 days across the tested concentrations, with an LC50 ranging from 2.45 × 107 to 3.84 × 107 spores/mL. In field trials, trunk injection treatment with the SPT35 strain at a concentration of 1 × 108 spores/mL achieved a control efficacy of 88.93% after 7 days. The SPT35 strain can serve as an effective microbial agent for controlling A. bungii and holds potential for development into a biocontrol product for practical application. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Abstract Just as for predators, many animals have developed a suite of defenses to counter the ubiquitous threat posed by parasites. Behavioral avoidance is a key strategy to reduce the likelihood of encountering situations with a relatively high degree of risk. However, because such avoidance likely incurs costs (i.e., non-consumptive effects), individuals should engage in risk assessment to gauge their threat of parasitism based on relevant cues. Combinations of cues may signal particularly risky situations, especially as animals often face concurrent natural enemies. In the first study to consider host choice in the presence of different parasites, we investigated behavioral avoidance in red flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum) given various foraging options involving two entomopathogens, the fungus Beauveria bassiana and the nematode Steinernema carpocapsae. Combinations included single and dual parasite threats, as well as whether parasites were represented by the presence of infectious stages and/or conspecific cadavers that were euthanized or killed by infection. Beetles generally did not exhibit behavioral avoidance of either parasite or the parasite-killed conspecifics, but rather, tended to be attracted to the latter if nematode-infected. They also did not avoid conditions with mixed cues related to the threat of infection, suggesting that they do not gauge or respond to parasitism risk in this way. Our findings have implications for understanding avoidance as an anti-parasite behavior across different host taxa, but also for the use of biocontrols such as fungi and nematodes for pest insects.

ABSTRACT The present study reports the occurrence of Tetrastichus girishi Narendran as a hyperparasitoid on the conopid fly Zodiomyia sumbaensis Camras, which is a natural enemy of a common bee, Braunsapis mixta Smith from Puttur, Karnataka, India. Out of 1067 conopid puparia collected over 2 years, 23 were hyperparasitized, accounting for 2.16% hyperparasitism. Attempts were made to document the developmental duration of T. girishi by exposing the fresh conopid puparium to T. girishi adults in the laboratory. It was found that T. girishi preferred fresh puparia of conopid flies for oviposition over old ones. Egg incubation period was less than 2 days (1.05 ± 0.22 days, N = 14). Mean larval and total developmental duration were 4.45 ± 0.51 and 16.26 ± 2.21 days, respectively. The sex ratio was highly female-biased. The study also reports the seasonal incidence of T. girishi over 2 years. DNA sequencing of the mitochondrial Cytochrome COX I (mtCOI) gene was carried out, and the GenBank accession number obtained was PQ772827. The phylogenetic analysis of Tetrastichus spp. indicated a distinct lineage formed by the sequence of T. girishi and its close association with T. murcia, T. dasyops and T. doczkali.

Nature-based solutions and indigenous knowledge for sustainable biological control.

Insects possess a highly specialized olfactory system. The migratory locust (Locusta migratoria), a major agricultural pest, is thought to emit odors that serve as aposematic signals to protect gregarious individuals from predation. However, whether locusts can detect the odors of their natural enemies to preemptively avoid predation remains unclear. Here, we show that gregarious mated female locusts exhibit strong avoidance behavior toward the odors of two avian predators, Numida meleagris and Anas platyrhynchos. Through volatile compound profiling, we identified 1-octen-3-ol, a key predator-released odor, which elicited significant aversive responses specifically in gregarious mated females; notably, virgin females showed no behavioral response to this odor. Through screening 82 olfactory receptors in L. migratoria, we identified two receptors, LmOR1 and LmOR17, that detect 1-octen-3-ol. A temporal expression study of LmOR1 and LmOR17 across different developmental stages of two locust phases using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) showed that both genes are significantly more highly expressed in the gregarious mated females. Genome editing of these receptors revealed that knockout of LmOR1 significantly reduced both the electrophysiological response and the behavioral avoidance of 1-octen-3-ol, whereas knockout of LmOR17 had no effect. In our results we thus uncover a striking mating-state dependence of an innate avoidance behavior to a predator-derived odor, and further we identify LmOR1 as the major receptor mediating this olfactory-driven defense. Our findings provide crucial insights into the behavioral and olfactory mechanisms underlying insect-predator interactions, as well as the role of mating status in modulating defensive responses, offering potential olfactory targets for locust management. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

The tobacco thrips, Thrips parvispinus, is threatening greenhouse horticulture crops worldwide. In a laboratory trial, gravid females of Amblyseius swirskii, Amblydromalus limonicus, Neoseiulus cucumeris and Transeius montdorensis consumed between 2 and 3.5 first instars of the thrips daily. The predation rates of the phytoseiids tested were lower than those reported when the western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis was provided as prey. This predation pattern was confirmed for A. swirskii in a separate trial. In a greenhouse cage trial with sweet pepper plants infested with tobacco thrips, A. swirskii, A. limonicus and N. cucumeris significantly reduced the pest numbers. However, in a commercial Ficus elastica Robusta crop, where A. swirskii and N. cucumeris were introduced weekly, no single predator proved to be sufficiently effective. Larger generalist predators, such as the lacewing Chrysoperla carnea, the predatory thrips Franklinothrips vespiformis, and the predatory bugs Orius laevigatus and Macrolophus pygmaeus were also tested. They reduced populations of tobacco thrips in a cage experiment on sweet pepper. Chrysoperla carnea and F. vespiformis were tested in a commercial Ficus greenhouse and reduced the pest population but were unable to eradicate it. Our results show that the tested mite and insect predators have potential to control tobacco thrips. More research on strategies involving preventative and curative releases of natural enemies, the combination of predatory mites with insect predators or with biopesticides, and the use of supplemental food sources will be needed to curb the spread and damage of T. parvispinus. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Climate change profoundly alters the geographical distribution and ecological adaptability of species, posing significant challenges to the spatial dynamics of pests and their natural enemies. To assess the potential impacts of climate variability on the efficacy of biological control, this study employed the MaxEnt model to project the current and future suitable habitats of the major agricultural pest Frankliniella tenuicornis and its natural antagonists Orius insidiosus and Ceranisus menes. The findings indicated that under future climatic scenarios, the potential distribution of F. tenuicornis is likely to expand, whereas the habitats of O. insidiosus and C. menes are expected to remain relatively stable or contract. Habitat overlap analysis revealed a considerable spatial congruence between the pest and its natural enemies, highlighting their potential to regulate pest populations through ecological interactions. Furthermore, under different emission pathways, the centroid of suitable habitats for F. -tenuicornis is projected to shift markedly westward and generally towards higher latitudes, while the displacement of centroids for the two natural enemies is comparatively minor. These results provide a comprehensive evaluation of the spatial dynamics of pests and their antagonists under climate change, offering theoretical foundations for optimizing biological control strategies, implementing targeted pest management practices, and safeguarding ecosystem stability.

1. Chilo sacchariphagus is a major sugarcane pest, primarily affecting producing regions in Asia and around the Indian Ocean, yet little is known about the biotic and abiotic factors driving its population dynamics and associated crop damage. This study assesses, for the first time, the relative influence of meteorological conditions, farming practices, landscape context, and natural enemy communities on herbivory damage caused by this pest on Reunion Island. 2. In-field surveys were conducted at 60 sampling points during 2022 and 2023, recording crop damage and multiple explanatory variables across spatial scales, from the field to the landscape. Data were analyzed using generalized additive models and a multi-model inference framework. 3. Crop damage was primarily explained by meteorological conditions (36 % of deviance), farming practices (36 %), and landscape context within a 250 m buffer (27 %) , while natural enemy abundance had no significant effect. Five key predictors shaped damage: average temperature during the wettest season, agrochemical inputs (fertilizer and herbicides), landscape edge density, and sugarcane proportion within the 250 m buffer. Lower fertilizer and herbicide use was associated with crop damage, while edge density and sugarcane proportion showed non-linear relationships with damage. 4. This study underscores the value of an integrative, cross-scale approach to identify drivers of crop damage by C. sacchariphagus . Findings suggest that reduced agrochemical inputs, coupled with increased landscape fragmentation and lower host crop dominance, may mitigate pest damage. Future work should further examine the role of natural enemies and explore the ecological mechanisms behind the non-linear impacts of landscape structure on pest dynamics. • Pest damage are shaped by farming practices, temperature, and landscape structure. • Lower fertilizer and herbicide use reduced crop damage. • Edge density and sugarcane proportion non-linearly affected crop damage. • Agroecological farming and landscape planning could help managing C. sacchariphagus • Multiscale approach effectively rank key factors that explain herbivory patterns