National Security Strategy Research Articles

Embezzlement in the Public Sector as an Object of Forensic Research

This paper investigates embezzlement in the public (budgetary) sector, a widespread phenomenon that causes significant harm to the national budget system, society, and individual citizens. To justify the relevance and scale of the issue, the Author cites statistical data from authoritative sources such as the Accounts Chamber of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. The analysis incorporates key provisions of the National Security Strategy of the Russian Federation relevant to the topic, including the Strategy’s prioritization of combating the misappropriation and misuse of state budget funds. The study presents the Author’s perspective on urgent issues in countering budget-related embezzlement and underscores the need for advanced forensic methodology to ensure effective detection, investigation, and prevention of such crimes. The concept of “budgetary funds” is examined in both current legislation and scholarly discourse. The paper outlines key features of crimes involving public-sector embezzlement, including: a specific object and subject of criminal encroachment; the specialized nature of the affected domain (e.g., public procurement); offenders, such as public officials, employees, and executives; self-serving motives and organized criminal methods; additional features characteristic of complex economic crimes. The Author offers a refined definition of this criminal phenomenon, emphasizing its potential as a methodological foundation for developing forensic profiles and investigation techniques. Based on a review of investigative and judicial practices and a broad spectrum of academic literature in forensic science, criminal law, and criminology, the paper concludes that embezzlement in the budgetary sphere is often intertwined with other offenses, such as: economic and official misconduct, corruption crimes, forgery and use of fraudulent documents and, in rare cases, even serious offenses such as murder.

Local Food Diversification as a Pillar of Sustainable Food Development: A Critical Review of Global and Local Perspectives

This study presents a critical narrative review of national and international literature published between 1995 and 2024 to examine the conceptual and empirical contributions of local food diversification in building sustainable food systems. Local food diversification plays a strategic role in building a more equitable, inclusive, and sustainable food system. A narrative critical review method was employed, allowing for thematic synthesis of peer-reviewed publications obtained from databases such as Scopus, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and accredited national journals. Literature selection focused on the keywords: local food diversification, food security, agroecology, local wisdom, and sustainable food systems. The collected data were analysed by mapping findings into five key dimensions: ecology, socio-culture, economy, technology, and policy and institutions. Findings highlight that agroecological diversification based on local biodiversity improves climate resilience and food availability, while also preserving cultural identity and empowering rural economies. Technological innovation and participatory policy approaches are essential to support local food systems. Strengthening multi-sector collaboration, research funding, and community participation is key to positioning local food diversification as a foundation for inclusive and resilient national food policy. This study emphasises the importance of strengthening institutions, research funding, and cross-sector collaboration to make local food diversification the foundation of the national food security strategy. By placing local values and diversity as pillars of policy, Indonesia can realise a future food system that is resilient, sovereign, and aligned with the principles of sustainability. Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):SDG 2: Zero HungerSDG 12: Responsible Consumption and ProductionSDG 13: Climate ActionSDG 15: Life on Land

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND AUTONOMOUS WEAPONS SYSTEMS: A NEW ERA OF MILITARY OPERATIONS

The article examines the importance of introducing artificial intelligence (AI) in the defence sector against the backdrop of the transformation of the nature of military conflicts and the growth of technological rivalry between the leading powers. Particular attention is paid to the automation of data collection and processing in military intelligence, which improves the speed and accuracy of decision-making on the battlefield. The functions of AI in the field of cybersecurity are analysed, where it plays a key role in detecting threats and protecting critical systems. The use of autonomous combat systems – drones, robotic platforms – that can act independently is considered. AI also allows optimising logistics, which contributes to the efficient use of resources. The growing complexity of modern warfare requires rapid analysis of large amounts of information. Artificial intelligence can significantly reduce data processing time, ensuring high accuracy and speed of strategic decision- making. This is crucial for early warning systems, air defence and cybersecurity, where the speed of response directly affects the level of national security. In addition to tactical effectiveness, AI plays an important role in deterring potential aggression. It is important to note that the use of AI in the military is not only a tool for achieving tactical superiority, but can also serve as a deterrent. The availability of high-tech defence systems equipped with AI can reduce the likelihood of aggression by potential adversaries, ensuring stability and balance of power. Thus, AI is becoming a key element of the modern national security strategy. In addition, the author notes the advantages of AI implementation: reducing risks for personnel, increasing the efficiency of tasks, and more accurate threat forecasting. At the same time, the article focuses on challenges, including cyber risks, ethical dilemmas, and the need for international legal regulation. The authors draw attention to the potential of hyper-network technologies in the development of adaptive battle management systems. The author concludes that a comprehensive approach to AI integration is needed, covering technical, legal, social and humanitarian aspects.

Seçili MENA ülkelerinde savunma harcamaları ve karbon emisyonu ilişkisi: Panel veri analizi

The purpose of this study is to reveal the impact of defence expenditures on carbon emissions in selected MENA countries between 1990-2020. To this end, Panel ARDL/PMG (Autoregressive Distributed Lag) was used in the study. In the study, carbon emissions served as the dependent variable, while defence expenditures and real gross domestic product per capita were used as independent variables. The study's findings indicate that the impact of defence expenditures and real gross domestic product per capita on carbon emissions is positive and statistically significant. A 1% increase in defence expenditure increases carbon emissions by 0,09%, while a 1% increase in real gross domestic product per capita increases carbon emissions by 0,63%. These empirical findings indicate that for MENA countries to achieve their sustainable development goals, the balance between defence expenditures and environmental impacts must be strategically managed. In this context, integrating ecological sustainability principles into national security strategies is crucial. Furthermore, to mitigate the environmental effects stemming from the defence sector, incorporating green technologies into defence industry processes is a critical step. These approaches will not only contribute to reducing carbon emissions but also enhance the region's long-term environmental resilience.

Advancing Cybersecurity Education: Developing a Cybersecurity Higher Education Network in Finnish Universities

Cybersecurity is a critical element of national security strategies. European countries have established cybersecurity strategies to enhance their resilience against cyber threats. In Finland, the cybersecurity strategy emphasizes the importance of cybersecurity education and its development as essential components in preparing the nation to address cybersecurity threats. Achieving national cyber self-sufficiency will require a diverse range of skilled cybersecurity experts. However, the global shortage of cybersecurity specialists poses a significant challenge to developing and maintaining cyber sufficiency and resiliency. This shortage is also recognized in Finland. Universities play a crucial role in training cybersecurity experts through their education programs. In Finland, initiatives have been launched to develop cybersecurity higher education to address skills shortages. A key measure identified is developing an educational network for cybersecurity higher education. In early 2023, a three-year national project was launched to develop university-level cybersecurity education in Finland. The project involves nine Finnish universities and aims to strengthen cooperation between universities, industry, and the public sector in cybersecurity education. This collaboration enables the development of cybersecurity education for both degree students and working professionals. This paper describes the process and measures for developing national university-level cybersecurity education in Finland. It also aims to provide an understanding of the opportunities and challenges in developing an educational network in higher education. A key finding is that the educational network provides a solid basis for developing cybersecurity skills and efficiently using resources. Additionally, it enables the coordination of cybersecurity education at the national level, thus supporting the promotion of Finnish cybersecurity strategy objectives.

ДИПЛОМАТІЯ ТА БЕЗПЕКА УКРАЇНИ В СИСТЕМІ МІЖНАРОДНИХ ВІДНОСИН: ВИКЛИКИ ГЛОБАЛЬНОЇ НЕСТАБІЛЬНОСТІ

The article examines the current challenges facing Ukraine in the field of diplomacy and national security in the context of global instability. The role of diplomacy as a key foreign policy instrument aimed at protecting national interests and ensuring the security of the state in the system of in- ternational relations is analyzed. Special attention is paid to the relationship between diplomatic measures, military capabilities and information policy, which together form the national security strategy of Ukraine. The main priorities of Ukraine’s foreign policy are considered, including integration into the European Union and NATO, strengthening strategic partnerships with Western countries, countering hybrid threats and preserv- ing territorial integrity. The political and diplomatic mechanisms used to attract international support for Ukraine are analyzed, in particular in the formation of an anti-Russian coalition, strengthening sanctions pressure and expanding military-technical cooperation with partner countries. The article also highlights the role of international organizations in support- ing Ukraine’s security initiatives, as well as the impact of global processes, in particular multipolarity, the increase in the level of conflicts in the world and economic instability, on Ukrainian foreign policy. The need to strength- en the state’s information security as a component of diplomatic struggle in the international arena is particularly emphasized. The authors conclude that for the effective implementation of its foreign policy strategy, Ukraine needs not only to strengthen diplomatic ties with international partners, but also to develop its own defense potential, en- hance economic stability and adapt its information security strategy to new challenges. Further research may focus on analyzing the effectiveness of Ukraine’s existing international alliances, the prospects for strengthening its position in the global security system, and ways to expand diplomatic initiatives to maintain stability in the region.

Security Policy Professionals as Strategic Cultural Agents: The Drafting of the German National Security Strategy

ABSTRACT This article discusses the importance of strategic cultural agency in terms of strategic culture and its evolution. It draws attention to sources of domestic political agency by focusing on the drafting process of the German National Security Strategy from the viewpoint of involved security policy professionals. The analysis is based on a critical reading of strategic culture literature as well as semi-structured interviews with key professionals who participated in the drafting process. The article posits that researcher input was a significant component in terms of the Security Strategy construed as strategic output in the context of an evolving German strategic culture. However, while the Security Strategy empowers some of the ‘keepers’ of German strategic culture, such as the Bundeswehr, it falls short in other areas.

National security strategy and update of Russia’s nuclear doctrine

The internationalization of the crisis in Ukraine and the dangerous acuteness of the military and political situation in the Middle East have marked new points of reference in the sphere of international security in the assessment of the close interrelation and interdependence of geopolitical, military, macroeconomic, value and socio-humanitarian factors in the global space. This warns against hasty speculative and inflated expectations regarding the transition to the formation of a new grid of geopolitical coordinates and prospects for strategic stability declared by D. Trump.

Features of the US Strategic Course towards Russia in the Conditions of Confrontation: Systemic Containment from the Perspective of Russophobic Manifestations

The article considers the features of the US strategic course towards Russia in the context of aggravated relations. The relevance of the study is due to the large-scale manifestations of Russophobic tendencies that have become derivatives of the implementation of the American geostrategy, causing challenges and threats to the national security of the Russian Federation. The purpose of the article is to characterize the main trends of Russophobic manifestations in the strategic approaches of the United States during the first presidential term of D. Trump and the presidency of J. Biden. The following research sources have been used: the US National Security Strategy 2017; the US National Security Strategy 2022, the US National Defense Strategy 2022; official statements of the United States Department of State; media data. In the course of the research, the problem of the presence of Russophobic attitudes in Washington’s modern geostrategic approaches at the doctrinal and practical levels has been identified. The research methodology is based on the synthesis of geopolitical and systemic approaches in the context of the paradigm of neorealism, which predetermined the use of digital technologies for document analysis, discourse analysis and content analysis. As a result of the study, it was proved that the modern hybrid war and the large–scale manifestations of Russophobia caused by it appear to be the result of the planned actions of the collective West led by the United States, being an instrument of geopolitical deterrence of Russia, and in the future – its weakening and destruction. Examples of Russophobic rhetoric in the basic documents defining approaches in the field of foreign policy and national security of the United States have been outlined. The main challenges and threats to the national security of the Russian Federation, which have become derivatives of the Russophobic course of the collective West, have been described.

Japan’s national cyber security strategy: problem field and approach’s traps

This article analyzes the approaches, challenges, and outcomes in developing and implementing national cybersecurity strategies, framing them through the concept of cyber power within neoclassical realism. Strengthening cyber power emerges as an independent variable, driven by the dynamics of the international system and presenting a persistent, shared external challenge across states. Each state crafts its response to this challenge based on intervening variables, with Japan serving as a critical case study to illustrate several key factors. The article asserts that Japan’s latest cybersecurity strategy, which ambitiously targets “active defense” and seeks parity with the United States, is unfeasible. Domestic political constraints fuel this impracticality. Political elites hesitate to independently and decisively enact essential legislation, while an entrenched reliance on the United States-termed Americentrism further complicates progress. Beyond Japan’s case, the analysis probes the risks of outsourcing a disproportionate share of national security responsibilities to external partners. Such delegation presents severe drawbacks: states forfeit technological sovereignty by favoring borrowed technologies over homegrown innovation, deepen their political dependence, expose regional security to threats, and gain little practical benefit from cooperative efforts. This conceptualization of cyber power and cybersecurity highlights a core principle: bolstering national cybersecurity demands each state’s independent initiative. The findings enrich debates about security in an emerging multipolar world and inform national security policies.

Power in context: Realigning regional and global power research

Abstract The study of sub-systems tends to be a disadvantaged endeavour within the discipline of International Relations. While the global level of analysis attracts more attention, contradictions in assumptions embraced by IR surface most readily on the sub-systemic level. This was the case with ‘Regional Power Research’ (RPR), a systematic study of post-Cold War emerging powers. RPR conceptualised emerging powers as autonomous regional powers and hypothesised that they would provide security as a public good within their regions. None of RPR's hypotheses could be confirmed empirically. The paper first provides a historically contextualised insight into the assumption of anarchy underlying RPR's hypotheses, and deconstructs the concept of public goods. It then presents findings from a longitudinal qualitative content analysis of the 1990–2021 national security strategies issued by the United States. Findings show that the world order that prevailed when emerging powers rose was markedly hierarchic, precluding autonomous security provision, an inherently hierarchic endeavour, by sub-global powers. Emerging powers embraced adaptive strategies and the global distribution of capabilities shifted. Findings confirm the need to ground hypotheses in empiricism, realigning regional and global level power research to reflect the changing degrees and spatio-temporal distributions of anarchy and hierarchy in the international system.

White Nationalism and Support for Political Violence in the United States

In recent years, concerns have grown about escalating political violence directed against government officials, particularly fueled by white nationalism. The current study examines how white nationalism is associated with support for violent citizen responses to three different types of government actions—those that are non-partisan versus those that benefit either left-wing or right-wing causes. Using data from a national survey experiment (N = 1300), we find sizable support for political violence, especially in response to non-partisan government actions that violate citizens’ rights or safety. In addition, white nationalist sentiment significantly predicts support for political violence, particularly when government actions benefit left-wing causes. This relationship persists after controlling for respondents’ political views. These results suggest that the rise of white nationalism poses a critical threat to U.S. political stability, underscoring the urgent need for national security strategies to counter this rising movement.

Common US-Qatari goals in military and security: interests after 1990

The strategy and objectives of the US Central Command are derived from the US National Security Strategy and its orientations, as well as from the US military strategy. In fact, the US Central Command, which has been organized and provided with sufficient and necessary assistance by the United States to enable it to protect US interests in the area of responsibility, represents a serious threat to the peoples of this region and to all forms of growing movements, particularly nationalist movements hostile to the United States. The United States has not been satisfied with the above military measures to ensure its hegemony and monopoly over the Arabian Gulf region, but has also sought to establish a set of defensive arrangements and involve the countries of the region, specifically the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states, in these arrangements with the aim of legitimizing them. The GCC states have entered into bilateral security agreements with influential states in the international system, led by the United States, in an attempt to create a kind of regional interconnectedness with these countries. Perhaps most important of all the above is building international legitimacy for the US military presence in the Arabian Gulf region, in form and substance, despite the dangerous repercussions of this presence on Arab national security, especially after it was transformed from a temporary presence to a permanent one. This was announced by William Cohen, the former US Secretary of Defense, in late October 2000, when he said, “The US forces will remain forever, and there is no justification for their withdrawal.” His companion, William Dowd, also confirmed this during his tour of the Gulf, when he said, “We will be here permanently.” As for Colin Powell, the former US Secretary of State, he said that the US military presence in the Arabian Gulf is a long-term goal and not merely a temporary deterrent against President Saddam Hussein.

Challenges of Iraqi National Security in Confronting Cyber Terrorism and Ways to Strengthen it

Objectives: The study aimed to identify and understand the challenges of Iraqi national security in confronting cyber terrorism and work to provide the most important ways to enhance cyber security in Iraq. Methodology: To understand the research hypothesis and answer the questions raised in the problem, the study used systems analysis and inductive approaches. Results: The study explained many results were reached, including Iraq's measures in enhancing cyber security are still below the required level, especially at the level of national legislation. The existence of a national cyber security strategy represents the first positive step to improving Iraqi national cyber security, but there is a need for regular updates and reviews of that strategy. Conclusions: The technological and information development that the world is witnessing today has led to the dominance of open space in the absence of centralization responsible for organizing power within cyberspace, which has made society subject to many digital threats. Therefore, urgent and thoughtful mechanisms must be found to preserve society's security and the state's national security from aggressive actions and espionage carried out by terrorist groups.

러시아 국가안보전략 변화와 한반도의 대응전략

러시아 국가안보전략 변화와 한반도의 대응전략

Multi-Scenario Simulation and Assessment of Ecological Security Patterns: A Case Study of Poyang Lake Eco-Economic Zone

Ecological security is integral to national security strategies, making the construction of ecological security patterns essential for mitigating ecological risks. However, predictive research on ecological security patterns (ESPs) remains limited. This study integrates the Patch-generating Land Use Simulation (PLUS) model with ecological security pattern analysis to provide scientific insights into spatial governance and optimization in the Poyang Lake Ecological and Economic Zone (PLEEZ). First, the PLUS model simulated land use changes in 2030 under three scenarios: natural development (ND), economic development (ED), and ecological protection (EP). Based on these projections, ecological security patterns were constructed using the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model, the Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) method, Conefor 2.6, the Minimum Cumulative Resistance (MCR) model, and resistance theory. The results indicate: (1) 19, 18, and 21 ecological source areas were identified under different scenarios, covering 6093.16 km2, 5973.21 km2, and 6702.56 km2, respectively, with 9, 8, and 10 important source sites, primarily in the north. (2) 37, 35, and 43 ecological corridors were delineated, exhibiting a spiderweb-like distribution. (3) 94, 62, and 107 ecological pinch points and 116, 121, and 104 ecological barrier points were detected. The Ecological Node Aggregation Area was identified as a critical zone for targeted ecological protection and restoration. Finally, the ecological zoning management strategy of “Four Cores, Two Zones, and One Belt” was proposed. This study offers valuable insights for sustainable land use planning and ecological risk mitigation.

Can Land Transfer-In Improve Farmers’ Farmland Quality Protection Behavior? Empirical Evidence from Micro-Survey Data in Hubei Province, China

Enhancing farmers’ behaviors toward cultivated land quality protection is a crucial support in achieving sustainable agricultural development and the national food security strategy. This study aims to investigate the impact of land transfer-in on farmers’ behaviors regarding cultivated land quality protection, explore the underlying mechanisms, and analyze group heterogeneity. To achieve this, the study empirically estimates the impact of land transfer-in on farmers’ behaviors in protecting cultivated land quality using micro-survey data from 743 households in Hubei Province, while addressing endogeneity and conducting robustness checks. The study further explores the mechanisms and heterogeneity of the effects of land transfer-in on farmers’ cultivated land quality protection behaviors. The results reveal that (1) land transfer-in significantly increases the likelihood of farmers taking actual actions to protect cultivated land quality and enhances their awareness, thereby promoting protective behaviors; (2) land transfer-in facilitates these protective behaviors mainly through income incentives and social network interactions, while rental constraints may have a suppressive effect; (3) full-time farmers, those with higher agricultural literacy, those who access agricultural knowledge online, and those affected by natural disasters are more likely to engage in proactive land quality protection behaviors after land transfer-in.

ASI AND CYBERTERRORISM: NEW CHALLENGES TO INDONESIA’S NATIONAL SECURITY AND PENAL POLICY

The convergence of artificial intelligence—especially artificial superintelligence (ASI)—and cyberterrorism presents serious threats to peace, order, and justice. These threats require strong criminal law enforcement and robust national security strategies. However, Indonesian criminal law policy has yet to adequately address the risks posed by ASI. Criminal law traditionally protects the interests of the state, society, and individuals—an approach also relevant to national security. Ignoring ASI’s development could lead to increased cyberterrorism, turning overlooked risks into real threats. An interdisciplinary perspective reveals that the growing intersection of AI and cyberterrorism introduces urgent new challenges for Indonesia’s national security and criminal law enforcement.

New tools of Japanese security

Geopolitical stresses in the Indo-Pacific are increasing and intensifying. These stresses derive from China’s more assertive regional behaviour; growing alignments between China and Russia on the one hand and Russia and North Korea on the other; and most recently from the apparent recalibration of United States foreign policy under the second Trump administration. They have magnified Japan’s significance as a strategic actor both in the Indo-Pacific and beyond. As such, it is of global importance whether Japan can meet the grand-strategic goals that it established in its 2022 National Security Strategy, National Defense Strategy and Defense Buildup Program. This Adelphi book evaluates Japan’s new grand strategy, considering whether it and associated reforms are sufficiently robust to fulfil Japan’s goal of ensuring its security even in the scenario of a Chinese attack on Taiwan.

Building Japanese deterrence and response capabilities – defence and diplomacy

Geopolitical stresses in the Indo-Pacific are increasing and intensifying. These stresses derive from China’s more assertive regional behaviour; growing alignments between China and Russia on the one hand and Russia and North Korea on the other; and most recently from the apparent recalibration of United States foreign policy under the second Trump administration. They have magnified Japan’s significance as a strategic actor both in the Indo-Pacific and beyond. As such, it is of global importance whether Japan can meet the grand-strategic goals that it established in its 2022 National Security Strategy, National Defense Strategy and Defense Buildup Program. This Adelphi book evaluates Japan’s new grand strategy, considering whether it and associated reforms are sufficiently robust to fulfil Japan’s goal of ensuring its security even in the scenario of a Chinese attack on Taiwan.