Regions Of Myanmar Research Articles

Case study on the first immigration of fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda invading into China

The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda is one of the most damaging crop pests, and it has become major threat to the food security of many countries. In order to monitor possible invasion of this pest into China, a searchlight trap was established in March 2018 in western Yunnan Province, China, where it has served as the “first station” for many pests that have migrated from Myanmar to China. A number of suspected FAW moths were captured and identified by DNA sequencing. The results showed that the FAW moth was first captured on December 11 and formed its first immigration peak in mid-December 2018. DNA detection revealed that the early invading FAW population was the “corn-strain”. The field survey indicated that the pest mainly colonized corn in Pu'er, Dehong and Baoshan areas. Migration trajectory simulation implied that the moths might have mainly come from the eastern area in the mid-latitude region of Myanmar (20–25°N, 94–100°E). This case study confirmed the first immigration of FAW into China, and will be helpful for guiding monitoring and management work to control this pest.

Association between depressive symptoms and objective/subjective socioeconomic status among older adults of two regions in Myanmar.

Low objective socioeconomic status (SES) has been correlated with poor physical and mental health among older adults. Some studies suggest that subjective SES is also important for ensuring sound physical and mental health among older adults. However, few studies have been conducted on the impact of both objective and subjective SES on mental health among older adults. This study examines whether objective or subjective SES is associated with depressive symptoms in older adults in Myanmar. This cross-sectional study, conducted between September and December, 2018, used a multistage sampling method to recruit participants from two regions of Myanmar, for face-to-face interviews. The Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) was used to evaluate the depressive symptoms. Participants were classified as having no depressive symptom (GDS score <5) and having depressive symptoms (GDS score ≥5). Objective and subjective SES were assessed using the wealth index and asking participants a multiple-choice question about their current financial situation, respectively. The relationship between objective/subjective SES and depressive symptoms was examined using a multivariable logistic regression analysis. The mean age of the 1,186 participants aged 60 years and above was 69.7 (SD: 7.3), and 706 (59.5%) were female. Among them, 265 (22.3%) had depressive symptoms. After adjusting for objective SES and other covariates, only low subjective SES was positively associated with depressive symptoms (adjusted odds ratio, AOR: 4.18, 95% confidence interval, CI: 2.98-5.87). This association was stronger among participants in the rural areas (urban areas, AOR: 2.10, 95% CI: 1.08-4.05; rural areas, AOR: 5.65, 95% CI: 3.69-8.64). Subjective SES has a stronger association with depressive symptoms than objective SES, among older adults of the two regions in Myanmar, especially in the rural areas. Interventions for depression in older adults should consider regional differences in the context of subjective SES by reducing socioeconomic disparities among the communities.

Integrating hotspots for endemic, threatened and rare species supports the identification of priority areas for vascular plants in SW China

Southwest China (SW China) covers three global biodiversity hotspots—the Mountains of Southwest China, the Eastern Himalayas and the Indo-Burma, India and Myanmar region—and has been recognized as one of the world’s most important refuges for diverse types of wildlife. Knowledge of the distribution of vascular plants in SW China provides essential information for determining priority conservation areas within these global biodiversity hotspots. However, little is known of the congruence among hotspots identified by different criteria. Here, the research aimed to identify proxies that could represent vascular plants in SW China by identifying the spatial congruence between different hotspots. First, the distributions of species richness (SR), endemic species richness (ER), threatened species richness (TR) and rare species richness (RR) for 24,070 vascular plants in SW China were mapped. Then, Gi* statistics were used to identify endemic species hotspots (EH), threatened species hotspots (TH) and rare species hotspots (RH); spatial congruence was tested by overlapping these three hotspots. The results showed that the spatial congruence of EH, TH and RH in the three hotspots was low, only ~21% were common to the three hotspots, and ~51% did not overlap with any other hotspots. However, the integration of EH, TH and RH (EH ∪ TH ∪ RH) provided a robust proxy for vascular plant diversity based on metrics of conservation efficiency, as the combination represents ~84% of all vascular plants in SW China and supports ~81%, ~82% and ~75% of endemic, threatened and rare species, respectively. Finally, 8 hotspot regions (counties) representing 20,187 species were identified as priority conservation areas, with only ~8.2% land cover of SW China, suggesting that this hotspots integration approach can provide a robust alternative for enhancing overall levels of biodiversity conservation and improving the effectiveness and efficiency of local management efforts.

Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2

Bats are the likely zoonotic origin of several coronaviruses (CoVs) that infect humans, including SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2, both of which have caused large-scale epidemics. The number of CoVs present in an area is strongly correlated with local bat species richness, which in turn is affected by climatic conditions that drive the geographical distributions of species. Here we show that the southern Chinese Yunnan province and neighbouring regions in Myanmar and Laos form a global hotspot of climate change-driven increase in bat richness. This region coincides with the likely spatial origin of bat-borne ancestors of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. Accounting for an estimated increase in the order of 100 bat-borne CoVs across the region, climate change may have played a key role in the evolution or transmission of the two SARS CoVs.

The persistence of credit–labor interlinked transactions in rural Myanmar: The case of Kanyingu Village in Ayeyarwady Delta

Financial inclusion has been one of the key agendas for poverty reduction in development practices since the mid-2000s. However, informal finance has clearly not been completely replaced by formal finance in the Global South. This study examines labor-tying credit, which is one type of informal finance, and based on a case study in the Delta region of Myanmar, the study explores the reason for which it persists despite the promotion of financial inclusion policies.This paper found that credit–labor interlinked credits or advance wage payments from farmers to agricultural laborers persist because subsistence is still the key element of life for the poor in rural Myanmar. Formal finance, which includes microfinance and conventional types of informal finance such as credit from money lenders, is only a partial substitution. The poor must stabilize consumption or meet other basic needs in the lean season, and there is no better option or credit source available. In the reality of the subsistence-oriented poor, “How much is left?” is more important than “How much is taken?” Therefore, the high interest rates involved in labor-tying credit is not the major concern of its recipients because of the immediacy of such advances.

Johnkoivulaite, Cs(Be2B)Mg2Si6O18, a new mineral of the beryl group from the gem deposits of Mogok, Myanmar

Abstract A new mineral of the beryl group, johnkoivulaite, Cs(Be2B)Mg2Si6O18, was recovered from the gem gravels in the Pein Pyit area of the Mogok region in Myanmar. Thus far, only a single crystal has been identified. It has dimensions of about 5.8 × 5.7 × 5.5 mm. This specimen has an irregular shape but still has discernible crystal form with geometric growth patterns observed on the crystal faces. The crystal of johnkoivulaite is grayish-violet in color and strongly pleochroic, going from nearly colorless with E┴c to dark bluish-violet with E||c. Johnkoivulaite has a Mohs hardness of about 7½ and a measured density of 3.01(10) g/cm3. It is uniaxial (–) with ω = 1.607(1) and ε = 1.605(1) (white light). Electron microprobe analyses gave the empirical formula of (Cs0.85K0.10Na0.01)(Be1.88B1.12)(Mg1.66Fe0.27Mn0.01Al0.05) (Si5.98)O18 with Be calculated by stoichiometry and confirmed by LA-ICP-MS measurements. Johnkoivulaite is hexagonal, P6/mmc (no. 192) with a = 9.469(2), c = 9.033(2) Å, V = 701.5(3) Å3, and Z = 2. Johnkoivulaite is isostructural with beryl and exhibits partial substitution of B for Be at the distorted tetrahedral site, Mg for Al at the octahedral site, and Cs in the channel sites within the stacked Si6O18 rings. This substitution can be written as (CsMg2B)(☐Al2Be)–1. Johnkoivulaite, the seventh member of the beryl group, is named in honor of gemologist John Koivula in recognition of his contributions to mineralogy and gemology.

Recent Auction of Tanintharyi Coinage Sheds Historical Light on Myanmar Region

Since January 2019, Stephen Album Rare Coins of Santa Rosa, California (USA), a numismatic dealer specializing in Islamic and Asian coinage, has auctioned a major collection of the large tin-lead coins and weights of the Tanintharyi region of Myanmar (formerly known as Tenasserim). This unprecedented assemblage of 125 specimens has offered students of Myanmar numismatics a unique opportunity to study these coins, as today’s on-line auctions provide quality digital photography unavailable in the past. This article introduces the reader to these coins by first reviewing the existing literature, beginning with European accounts from the seventeenth century and ending with the latest archaeological research papers addressing these coins. It will then examine seven select specimens from the Stephen Album auctions, several of which are previously unreported, that provide insights into Tanintharyi culture and communities from the seventeenth to early nineteenth centuries. This analysis will identify the only Tanintharyi coin discovered so far with a certain date and will examine a possibly mischaracterized date in another. It will also propose a translation of a previously misrepresented Tanintharyi coin and close with conclusions regarding the time period during which these coins were made, their economic function and the cultural contexts they may illuminate. The article reaches three major conclusions: 1) the manufacture and use of these coins began in the early seventeenth century and continued into the nineteenth century; 2) they functioned in local Tanintharyi economies and marketplaces and not in higher value trade between entrepots; and 3) they were issued by both official and private parties, with both entities utilizing cultural icons and traditions, rather than official titles or references, to generate acceptance of this medium of exchange.

Nats in the Land of the Hintha: Village Religion in Lower Myanmar

Nats in the Land of the Hintha:Village Religion in Lower Myanmar Keziah Wallis (bio) Introduction1 When I first arrived in Myanmar in 2012, I had fairly well-developed expectations of the kinds of lived religious practices I would see.2 Fresh from completing a class in Religions of Southeast Asia, I had spent time reading the literature by Bénédicte Brac de la Perrière, Melford Spiro, and other scholars on the complex relationship between Buddhism and the nats (နတ်).3 What I found in Yangon largely conformed to these expectations. It was only when my fieldwork shifted from the urban space of Yangon to a village in the Bago region that I found these expectations fundamentally challenged. As I grew more familiar with the location, [End Page 193] I found significant differences between what my participants told me and what I read in the academic literature on the nats. It was not only the academic literature that seemed to contradict my experiences in the field. Yangonbased participants were often shocked when I described the rituals I had attended in the village. I came to realize that there were multiple distinctions separating the lives of my village-based participants from those depicted in the literature on the nats. First, my participants were Bamar living in contemporary rural Myanmar and not the rural Myanmar of the anthropologists working in the 1960s. Second, unlike the urban-based spirit-mediums (; nat-kátàw) of Brac de la Perrière's research, my participants were not religious specialists. The few who did live in Yangon had only moved there within the past fifteen years. Perhaps most importantly, my participants were from Bago in Lower Myanmar; the majority of research on nats—with the notable exception of Brac de la Perrière's work—has taken place in Upper Myanmar. While Bago today is included as part of myanmangainngán (), historically the space has been predominantly Mon. The city of Bago was founded by the Mon in the thirteenth century as the center of the influential Ramaññadesa Kingdom. The city was also the center of the Taungoo Empire, founded in the sixteenth century by Tabinshweti-min who had ties to the Bamar court at Ava and ostensibly "became Mon" in order to rule from the Mon city (Shorto 1961:68; Lieberman 1978:457). Inscriptions at Thaton locate Bamar presence within the Mon political center in the eleventh and twelfth centuries (Stadtner 2008:202) and suggest long-standing connections between Bamar and the Lower Myanmar region. While Bamar migration to Bago would have [End Page 194] undoubtedly occurred during Tabinshweti-min's reign when it was the center of the Bamar court, the widespread Bamar settlement of the region did not begin until the eighteenth century (Lieberman 2003:1:203). The pattern intensified during the Konbaung era (1752–1885) as Bamar people migrated south to work in the British control delta regions (see Adas 1974:chap. 2). According to the 1983 Population Census, Bamar made up 88.9% of the population of Bago (Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs 1987:I–14). While the data on ethnicity for the 2014 census have not been released, this ratio is unlikely to have changed substantially. Primary research for this paper took place in Shwe Moe,4 a medium-sized village which exemplifies the dynamics of identity in Bago. The Shwemawdaw pagoda, one of the premier Mon Buddhist sites in Myanmar, is visible from the village's southwest fields. All thousand residents of the village identified themselves as "only Bamar."5 Residents' pride in their "only Myanmar" (read Bamar) heritage was often distinguished with the neighboring village which shares the same village tract and is comprised of Mon and Bamar inhabitants. Despite expressing an explicitly Bamar identity, close conversations frequently revealed more complex ethnic heritages, and many residents saw themselves as the descendants of Bamar men who migrated from Upper Myanmar during the early colonial period and married Mon women already living in the region (see also Brac de la Perrière 1996:57). There is historical evidence to support this narrative of Mon-Bamar heritage. Konbaung policy of the...

Patterns of land system change in a Southeast Asian biodiversity hotspot

Growing demand for agricultural commodities like rubber or oil palm is causing rapid change in Southeast Asia's biodiversity-rich forested landscapes. This change is particularly pronounced in Myanmar, whose economy is developing at great speed after the end of decades-long economic and political isolation and armed conflicts. Interventions are needed to ensure that development is sustainable. Designing successful interventions requires spatially explicit knowledge of recent landscape changes. To provide such knowledge, we applied a landscape mosaic approach and analysed land system change in Tanintharyi Region in southern Myanmar between 2002 and 2016. Our findings show that nearly half of the study region experienced degradation of the vegetation cover, intensification of agricultural use, or a combination of both. Although intact forest was still the prevailing vegetation cover of land systems in Tanintharyi Region in 2016, it had suffered from degradation in wide parts of the region. Land systems without or with only extensive agricultural use in 2002 had become dominated by smallholders' shifting cultivation systems and permanent betel nut gardens and paddy rice fields by 2016. Elsewhere, smallholder dominated land systems were intensified through the expansion of oil palm and rubber plantations, pointing to potential displacement effects. The land system maps offer a sound basis for planning interventions to slow the degradation of biodiversity-rich forests and support smallholder farmers in coping with the fast-paced expansion of commercial cash crop plantations and its social and environmental impacts. Sustainable development in this global biodiversity hotspot requires careful land use planning to support nature and people, along with continued efforts for peace-building.

Serological evidence indicates widespread distribution of rickettsioses in Myanmar

BackgroundLittle research has been published on the prevalence of rickettsial infections in Myanmar. This study determined the seroprevalence of immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies to rickettsial species in different regions of Myanmar. MethodsSeven hundred leftover blood samples from patients of all ages in primary care clinics and hospitals in seven regions of Myanmar were collected. Samples were screened for scrub typhus group (STG), typhus group (TG) and spotted fever group (SFG) IgG antibodies using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Immunofluorescence assays were performed for the same rickettsial groups to confirm seropositivity if ELISA optical density ≥0.5. ResultsOverall IgG seroprevalence was 19% [95% confidence interval (CI) 16–22%] for STG, 5% (95% CI 3–7%) for TG and 3% (95% CI: 2–5%) for SFG. The seroprevalence of STG was particularly high in northern and central Myanmar (59% and 19–33%, respectively). Increasing age was associated with higher odds of STG and TG seropositivity [per 10-year increase, adjusted odds ratio estimate 1.68 (p < 0.01) and 1.24 (p = 0.03), respectively]. ConclusionRickettsial infections are widespread in Myanmar, with particularly high seroprevalence of STG IgG antibodies in central and northern regions. Healthcare workers should consider rickettsial infections as common causes of fever in Myanmar.

Precarity, poverty and poppy: Encountering development in the uplands of Shan State, Myanmar

In recent years there have been growing calls for “development-oriented drug policies” to tackle illicit drug cultivation in the global South. Calls to integrate drugs and development have been important in demonstrating the damage caused by the war on drugs to marginalized communities and in drawing attention to how drug cultivation is inextricably linked to wider development challenges. However, this paper argues that the emerging policy agenda to ‘developmentalise’ drug policy is founded upon a simplified and misleading conceptualization of the relationship between poverty, development and illicit drug cultivation. Most problematically, it overlooks the fact that people who cultivate drugs because they are poor are not just those who have been ‘left behind’ by development. They are also those who have experienced new forms of immiseration and precarity as a consequence of processes of economic liberalization, market integration and agricultural ‘modernization’. Confronting this blindspot, this article analyses the drivers of rising illicit opium cultivation across parts of Shan State, Myanmar, since the late 1990s. The paper argues that if the current agenda to developmentalise drug policy is to make a meaningful contribution to the lives of the rural poor in drug-producing regions in Myanmar and beyond, it must confront the fact that for many households the decision to cultivate opium has been a response to the very processes of market-led rural development that policymakers claim will alleviate poverty.

Deictic motion in Hakhun Tangsa

This paper provides a detailed description of how deictic motion events are encoded in a Tangsa variety called Hakhun, spoken in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in India, and in Sagaing Region in Myanmar. Deictic motion events in Hakhun are encoded by a set of two motion verbs, their serial or versatile verb counterparts, and a set of two ventive particles. Impersonal deictic motion events are encoded by the motion verbs alone, which orient the motion with reference to a center of interest. Motion events with an SAP figure or ground are simultaneously encoded by the motion verbs and ventive particles. These motion events evoke two frames of reference: a home base and the speech-act location. The motion verbs anchor the motion with reference to the home base of the figure, and the ventives (or their absence) anchor the motion with reference to the location of the speaker, the addressee, or the speech-act. When the motion verbs are concatenated with other verbs, they specify motion associated with the action denoted by the other verb(s).

965. AGAPETES PENTASTIGMA

SummaryA recently‐described species of Agapetes, A. pentastigma J. Murata, Nob. Tanaka and H. Murata from Myanmar is illustrated. The genus Agapetes in the Myanmar region is reviewed and its morphology discussed.

Degradation of Soil Quality in Mandalay Region of Myanmar Due to Overuse of Pesticides in Agriculture

Landlords and cultivators of watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus) and several other types of melons ( Cucumis melo var. Cantalupensis, Cucumis melo var. Reticulatus, Cucumis melo var. Cucumis melo Inodorusvar, etc.) complained about soil degradation due to cultivation of melons without judicious use of pesticides. Conducting a field survey on the use of pesticides and the prevalence of pesticide residues in the soil of melon-cultivated areas, the study investigates the authenticity of such claims and figures out the actual reasons for such land degradation. The survey was carried out on 150 farmers from 30 villages in Kyaukse, Myitthar and Tada U Township in Mandalay division of Myanmar. The survey captures information on pesticide-related awareness, attitudes and practices and identifies possible health and environmental risks. The usage, storage and handling of pesticides by most of the respondents were found not safe, and knowledge on the adverse effects of pesticides on health, crops and the environment was found to be inadequate. The findings have indicated the potential risk of soil degradation. It appears that lack of cooperation among the government, non-governmental organisations (NGO), private sector stakeholders and farmers is the key weakness for improving agricultural practices adopted by farmers. Enhancing the awareness, changing the attitudes and improving the practices of the farmers regarding the use of pesticides may be the key step towards addressing this issue.

Social Media Use by Young People Living in Conflict-Affected Regions of Myanmar.

Since Myanmar's transition to civilian rule in 2011, the use of smartphones has exploded. The ubiquitous use of social media, in particular Facebook, has had a well-publicized dark side as a platform for disseminating fake news and hate speech. With poor digital literacy skills, Myanmar users are susceptible to disinformation campaigns and other online dangers, particularly young people, the most prevalent users. The current study collected benchmarking data related to usage patterns and perceptions of social media among Myanmar youth living in conflict-affected areas, including internally displaced Rohingya Muslims whose voice is yet to be captured in social media research. A total of 231 participants from Rakhine and Kayah States aged 13-35 were surveyed about their use of social media and its impact on Myanmar society and their own lives. More than half of the young people sampled were heavy smartphone users, particularly Rohingya Muslims, who rely on social media for contact with society outside of their camps. Facebook was by far the most used app, however, private group chat-based platforms were also popular. A majority said that they check the accuracy of news they read on social media, however, most do so by checking other Facebook pages or asking friends or family. Overall, most young people thought that social media has both a positive impact and negative impact on their lives. This study adds to an emerging body of research into how Myanmar youth engage with social media, particularly regarding how they consume news of current events.

Prevalence and determinants of TB infection in a rural population in northeastern Myanmar

BackgroundTuberculosis (TB) is a major human threat, as evidenced by the large numbers of cases and deaths, particularly in developing countries with poor economic and educational statuses. Myanmar has one of the highest TB burdens in the world, but no TB information is available for people living in the rural northeastern regions of Myanmar. The present study estimated the prevalence of TB and identified factors associated with TB infection in people living in rural communities in Shan State.MethodsA cross-sectional study was performed to gather information from participants. People aged 18–59 years who lived in the three areas with the highest numbers of TB cases in Shan State in northeastern Myanmar were included in the study population. A simple random method was used to select the sample from the villages. A validated questionnaire was used for data collection in face-to-face interviews after obtaining signed informed consent from the selected participants. The Mantoux tuberculin skin test (TST) was administered to detect TB infection, and a result that was 10 mm or greater after 48 h was considered positive. Chi-squared tests and logistic regression were used to identify the associations between the variables at a significance level of α = 0.05.ResultsA total of 303 participants were recruited for the study; 64.7% were females, and the mean age was 37 years (SD = 12.5). Most participants were Burmese (25.4%), and 14.95% were Shan. Sixty-three participants (20.8%) had a positive TST. Four variables were associated with TB infection in the multivariate model. Males had a greater chance of TB infection than females (AOR = 2.51; 95% CI = 1.32–4.76). Participants who were ever married had a greater chance of TB infection than participants who were single (AOR = 3.93; 95% CI = 1.18–13.00). Participants who used wood and charcoal as their main sources of energy for cooking had a greater chance of TB infection than participants who used electricity (AOR = 4.23; 95% CI = 1.25–9.64). Participants who had a low level of TB prevention and care knowledge had a greater chance of TB infection than participants with a high level of TB prevention and care knowledge (AOR = 4.49; 95% CI = 1.88–10.72).ConclusionsPublic health programs that focus on improving knowledge of TB prevention and care and avoiding the use of wood and charcoal as the primary sources of energy for cooking, particularly in males and ever-married individuals, are urgently needed.

Participatory analysis of sustainable land and water management practices for integrated rural development in Myanmar

Abstract Besides providing reliable water resources for agricultural production, rural development efforts in Myanmar should target rural water security in terms of safe water supply and sanitation, and by mitigating water-related hazards. However, very few studies are available over the status of water-related development in rural areas of the country, and consequently on suitable practical solutions. The present paper describes a participatory workshop undertaken involving 45 rural development officers of the Department of Rural Development (DRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Irrigation (MOALI), aimed at identifying suitable sustainable land and water management (SLWM) practices to be developed in rural areas of the country. Adoption of water safety plans (WSP), water harvesting, and soil and water bioengineering were strongly supported, while the need for improving water sanitation, especially in the poorest areas, was made evident. Insights of the participatory process confirmed that the poorest regions of Myanmar have also the worst water management structures. The results of the present work can represent baseline information and a needs assessment for future development projects in the country. However, there is a strong need for more studies and reports targeting marginalized rural contexts of Myanmar, to support equitable development.

Integrative taxonomic and geographic variation analyses in Cyrtodactylus aequalis (Squamata: Gekkonidae) from southern Myanmar (Burma): one species, two different stories

The historical accuracy of building taxonomies is improved when they are based on phylogenetic inference (i.e., the resultant classifications are less apt to misrepresent evolutionary history). In fact, taxonomies inferred from statistically significant diagnostic morphological characters in the absence of phylogenetic considerations, can contain non-monophyletic lineages. This is especially true at the species level where small amounts of gene flow may not preclude the evolution of localized adaptions in different geographic areas while underpinning the paraphyletic nature of each population with respect to the other. We illustrate this point by examining genetic and morphological variation among three putatively allopatric populations of the granite-dwelling Bent-toed Gecko Cyrtodactylus aequalis from hilly regions in southeastern Myanmar. In the absence of molecular phylogenetic inference, a compelling argument for three morphologically diagnosable species could be marshaled. However, when basing the morphological analyses of geographic variation on a molecular phylogeny, there is a more compelling argument that only one species should be recognized. We are cognizant of the fact however, that when dealing with rare species or specimens for which no molecular data are possible, judicious morphological analyses are the only option—and the desired option given the current worldwide biodiversity crisis.

Detection and molecular identification of Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium species from village chickens in different areas of Myanmar

Village chicken production, a traditional, small-scale, and extensive backyard poultry industry, has been profitable for local farmers in Myanmar. However, there is scanty information available concerning the infection of these chickens with avian pathogens, including haemoprotozoan parasites. In the present study, we provide the first report of microscopic detection and molecular identification of Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium parasites from seven different areas of Myanmar. Leucocytozoon gametocytes were detected in 17.6% (81/461) of the blood smears from village chickens. The nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for targeting Leucocytozoon mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) genes had a 17.6% positive rate. Although the positive rate of nested PCR targeting Plasmodium/Haemoproteus cyt b was 34.3%, the PCR protocol was observed to possibly amplify DNA of a certain species of Leucocytozoon. There were no obvious clinical signs in the infected birds. Statistical analysis of the microscopic detection and PCR detection rates using the age and sex of birds as internal factors revealed that the statistical significances differed according to the study area. The sequencing of 32 PCR products obtained from each study area revealed infection by Leucocytozoon caulleryi in three birds, Leucocytozoon sabrazesi in two birds, Leucocytozoon schoutedeni in two birds, Leucocytozoon sp. in eighteen birds, and Plasmodium juxtanucleare in seven birds; however, Haemoproteus infection was not detected. While L. sabrazesi was detected in chickens from the central region of Myanmar, the other haemosporidians were detected in those from different areas. In the haplotype analysis, we detected 17 haemosporidian cyt b haplotypes, including two for L. caulleryi, one for L. sabrazesi, two for L. schoutedeni, nine for Leucocytozoon sp., and three for P. juxtanucleare. Phylogenetic analysis of the cyt b haplotypes revealed a considerably close genetic relationship among chicken haemosporidians detected in Myanmar, Thailand, and Malaysia. These results indicate that well-recognized widespread species of chicken Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium are distributed nationwide in Myanmar, providing new insights into the ecosystem and control strategies of haemosporidian parasites in domesticated chickens in Myanmar.

Genetic polymorphism and natural selection of circumsporozoite protein in Myanmar Plasmodium vivax

BackgroundCircumsporozoite surface protein (CSP) of malaria parasites has been recognized as one of the leading vaccine candidates. Clinical trials of vaccines for vivax malaria incorporating Plasmodium vivax CSP (PvCSP) have demonstrated their effectiveness in preventing malaria, at least in part. However, genetic diversity of pvcsp in the natural population remains a major concern.MethodsA total of 171 blood samples collected from patients infected with Plasmodium vivax in Myanmar were analysed in this study. The pvcsp was amplified by polymerase chain reaction, followed by cloning and sequencing. Polymorphic characteristics and natural selection of pvcsp population in Myanmar were analysed using DNASTAR, MEGA6 and DnaSP programs. The polymorphic pattern and natural selection of publicly accessible global pvcsp sequences were also comparatively analysed.ResultsMyanmar pvcsp sequences were divided into two subtypes VK210 and VK247 comprising 143 and 28 sequences, respectively. The VK210 subtypes showed higher levels of genetic diversity and polymorphism than the VK247 subtypes. The N-terminal non-repeat region of pvcsp displayed limited genetic variations in the global population. Different patterns of octapeptide insertion (ANKKAEDA in VK210 and ANKKAGDA in VK247) and tetrapeptide repeat motif (GGNA) were identified in the C-terminal region of global pvcsp population. Meanwhile, the central repeat region (CRR) of Myanmar and global pvcsp, both in VK210 and VK247 variants, was highly polymorphic. The high level of genetic diversity in the CRR has been attributed to the different numbers, types and combinations of peptide repeat motifs (PRMs). Interestingly, 27 and 5 novel PRMs were found in Myanmar VK210 and VK247 variants, respectively.ConclusionComparative analysis of the global pvcsp population suggests a complex genetic profile of pvcsp in the global population. These results widen understanding of the genetic make-up of pvcsp in the global P. vivax population and provide valuable information for the development of a vaccine based on PvCSP.