Multilateral Approach Research Articles

Analysis of the WTO Compliance of the European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

The European Union's Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), as the world's first cross-border carbon tariff regime, aims to balance climate policies and international trade rules through carbon cost equalization. However, its unilateral nature has sparked significant controversy regarding its compatibility with the WTO's multilateral framework. This article focuses on the potential conflicts between CBAM and WTO rules, highlighting that its differentiated carbon pricing mechanism may violate non-discrimination principles, its transitional policies implicitly favor domestic industries, and its stringent data requirements create technical barriers for developing countries. The controversy surrounding CBAM fundamentally reflects the inherent tension between global climate governance and the existing trade system: while unilateral measures might temporarily mitigate carbon leakage risks, they risk exacerbating trade protectionism and undermining multilateral cooperation. To address these challenges, this study proposes a multilateral approach centered on harmonizing international standards, fostering technical capacity-building, and reforming WTO rules. It advocates for inclusive institutional design to reconcile environmental objectives with trade equity, thereby offering a governance framework that balances efficiency and fairness for global low-carbon transitions.

Theory of Self‐Determination: A Viable Solution for the Kashmir Conflict

ABSTRACTThis study critically examines the longstanding rivalry between two South Asian nuclear powers, Pakistan and India, with a focus on the Kashmir conflict. It proposes a viable resolution grounded in the theoretical framework of self‐determination. The analysis explores the case for self‐determination in Kashmir by investigating key factors, including persistent oppression and injustice, widespread popular uprisings supported by the local population, and the repeated failure of conflict resolution and reconciliation strategies to achieve an amicable solution. It also evaluates potential pathways for resolving the Kashmir conflict, emphasizing both bilateral approaches and multilateral or United Nations‐mediated frameworks. The findings indicate that the principle of self‐determination provides a robust foundation for resolving this protracted social conflict. However, the prospects for a bilateral resolution appear limited, as the status quo largely benefits India, the dominant actor in the dispute. While multilateral approaches offer greater potential for implementation, they face significant challenges. The study concludes by emphasizing the necessity for Pakistan and India to adopt a comprehensive and integrated strategy that prioritizes self‐determination as a means to foster mutual trust and ensure peaceful coexistence in the region.

The concept of a conflict-of-laws problem in international private law and the main ways of its solution

The article analyzes the conflict-of-laws problem in international private law and examines the ways and main approaches to its solution. The article proves that modern private international law ceases to be a purely conflict of laws, that is, the law of the collision (conflict) of national legal systems and turns into the law of interaction of national private legal systems, within which cooperation prevails over the collision. The article determines the essence of the conflict-of-laws issue, which consists in the fact that it is necessary to determine the law of which state should be applied to a specific legal relationship complicated by a foreign element: the law of the state to which the foreign element belongs or the law of the country of the court. The research establishes that in private international law, the solution of a conflict-of-laws problem is possible by applying one of the following three approaches: substantive law approach, or multilateral (bilateral) approach and unilateral approach. The study reveals that the basis of the first, substantive law approach, which is considered historically the first, is not the choice of one of the existing legal systems, but the formulation of a new set of substantive-legal norms adapted to the regulation of cross-border relations. The article argues that in the modern world such approaches cannot be applied, since this can lead to complete arbitrariness of the law enforcement officer, who, for obvious reasons, in most cases prefers the lex fori norm, which is well known to him. The research also identifies another approach to the current conflict-of-laws problem in the current international law, which is the dominant one in European international private law – multilateral (bilateral) approach – which is directly aimed at assessing the status of both domestic and foreign substantive law. The work argues for the importance of the third approach to the growing conflict-of-laws problem in current international private law, which we consider to be a unilateral approach. The investigation proves that according to this approach, the starting point is the norm of substantive law itself. The paper concludes that the multilateral (bilateral) and unilateral approaches can be combined into a group of conflict-of-laws approaches, since both are based on the premise that a cross-border dispute is a potential conflict between the substantive legal norms of different states, and this conflict can be resolved by choosing the substantive legal norms of only one state.

Indo-russia Relations Amidst Evolving Regional Geopolitics: Challenges and Opportunities

India and Russia have traditionally shared a strong and cooperative relationship, which has evolved into a privileged strategic partnership in the twenty-first century. This enduring bond is rooted in historical ties, defence cooperation, and shared geopolitical interests. However, the dynamics of this relationship have been tested by recent global developments, particularly Russia’s invasion of Ukraine. Since the onset of the conflict, India has maintained a neutral stance, refraining from outright condemnation while emphasizing dialogue and diplomacy. New Delhi’s approach reflects its strategic calculations, as Russia remains a key partner in defence procurement and geopolitical balancing, especially concerning China. India values Moscow’s support in managing its territorial disputes and maintaining regional stability. Despite its ties with Russia, India has also significantly strengthened its relations with the West, particularly the United States and European nations. The growing Indo-U.S. partnership, QUAD engagements, and increased defence and trade cooperation with Western countries highlight India’s multilateral approach to foreign policy. While India continues to prioritize its interests with Russia, its evolving geopolitical alignment suggests that it will not offer unconditional support to Moscow. In this context, this paper seeks to analyse India-Russia relations amid shifting global power dynamics. It explores how India navigates its strategic autonomy, balancing historic ties with Russia while deepening engagements with Western allies. By examining these factors, the study aims to provide insights into the future trajectory of Indo-Russian relations in a rapidly changing geopolitical landscape.

The determınants of confrontatıon between states ın modern world

Purpose: to discuss the most prominent determinants bringing states to confrontation or creating favorable conditions for waging wars on the basis of various theories. Method: comparative analysis, and synthesis. Findings: Confrontations often serve as precursors to war, while wars reshape the dynamics of future confrontations. Therefore, confrontation itself in the modern world emerges from a complex interplay of various factors, each intensifying and interacting with the others in unique ways. If not managed effectively, any confrontation can escalate into war. The factors highlighted in the paper interact in complex ways, with economic motives intertwining with ideological ambitions, and technological advances creating new means of confrontation. Understanding these interconnected factors is crucial for developing strategies to prevent or resolve conflicts in today’s globalized and interdependent world, which in turn underscores the importance of diplomatic efforts, multilateral alliances, and conflict resolution mechanisms to manage and mitigate the risks of modern warfare. Theoretical implications: The article enhances our understanding of the determinants of confrontation through the lens of political, economic, and sociocultural theories as states pursue self-interest in an environment lacking a central authority. Practical implications: The article contributes to the promotion of multilateral approaches and cooperative frameworks for resource sharing by addressing security, economic, technological, ideological, and environmental determinants through targeted strategies in the modern era.

TESSD Negotiation: An Ugly Duckling or A White Swan?

The imperative for effective climate governance has recently driven numerous countries to consider incorporating sustainability criteria within the framework of global trade governance. A noteworthy effort in this direction is the Trade and Environmental Sustainability Structured Discussions (TESSD) within the World Trade Organization (WTO). Regrettably, there has been a scarcity of studies thoroughly examining the intricacies of the TESSD negotiations. This article fills this literature gap by empirically analysing the ongoing TESSD negotiations. Moreover, the TESSD’s plurilateral nature adds an extra layer of significance to its examination. While some scholars have theorized about the benefits of embracing plurilateralism in reforming WTO rules, none have yet subjected this hypothesis to empirical scrutiny. This article examines whether the plurilateral approach used in TESSD negotiations delivers these benefits. It reveals whether the TESSD negotiations can be likened to the ugly duckling’s transformation into a graceful white swan, essentially deviating from the multilateral approach. Overall, this article’s primary contribution lies in its critical examination of the TESSD negotiations and a thoughtful reflection on using the plurilateral negotiation approach in the context of environmental sustainability.

A review of the types of diets used in Crohn’s disease: the support system for pharmacological treatment

Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic and progressive disease, that requires a multilateral approach. Its incidence is rising globally, particularly in industrializing regions, correlating with increased consumption of ultra-processed foods. Besides pharmacological and surgical treatment, the diet component plays a crucial role in alleviating symptoms of the disease and preventing its progression. This review highlights the evolving role of dietary interventions as supportive treatments in CD management, complementing pharmacological and surgical approaches. This review represents the analysis of some of the most commonly used diets: the low FODMAP diet, Specific Carbohydrate Diet (SCD), Mediterranean diet, Crohn’s Disease Exclusion Diet (CDED), and exclusive enteral nutrition (EEN) in Crohn's disease based on studies from PubMed’s articles published within the last five years. The aim of this systematic review is to highlight the importance of dietary element in the management of CD and a wide range of new methods of supporting treatment. Dietary interventions provide significant potential to modulate inflammation, support remission, and improve the quality of life in CD patients. Further research in personalized dietary protocols will help incorporate into multidisciplinary approaches for the treatment.

Obstacles in Recovery of Dower in Bangladesh

Dower, a crucial element of marital agreements in Bangladesh and other Muslim societies, refers to the financial or property rights a wife is entitled to from her husband. Moreover, it plays a crucial role to enhance women’s financial security and economic independence, particularly in the event of divorce, widowhood. In Islam, a balanced societal structure is promoted through a clear division of responsibilities: women traditionally manage household affairs, while men are tasked with providing for the family’s financial needs. In Bangladesh, the right to dower is safeguarded by law, recognizing it as a binding obligation on the husband. This article examines the practical challenges in recovering dower within the Bangladeshi context and recommends enhancing awareness among wife and husband regarding their respective religious, legal, and social responsibilities in fulfilling dower obligations. The author presumes that addressing the challenges in recovering dower require multilateral approaches involving collaborations between the government, judicial activism, civil societies, religious institutions and community leaders. Moreover, increasing public awareness, reforming statutory frameworks and advocating for changes in the societal attitude to deprive women from this significant right are all inevitable for mitigating the barriers towards recovery of dower rights of Bangldeshi women.

Transactional peacemaking: Warmakers as peacemakers in the political marketplace of peace processes

ABSTRACT World politics are changing with important implications for international peace processes. We argue that recent changes in world order have led to transactionalism becoming more pronounced in peace processes. This is because increased geopolitical competition often leads to a conflation of warmakers and peacemakers: States that provide military support to belligerents also engage in peacemaking. This renders peace processes political marketplaces with transactionalism as main modus operandi. Transactional peacemaking has three features: It prioritizes bilateral over multilateral approaches; is interest-based and exclusive rather than value-based and inclusive; and focuses on short-term deals instead of long-term outcomes. Drawing on over 70 interviews, we empirically demonstrate our argument with the peace processes in Libya, Syria, and Yemen. We conclude by discussing the consequences of transactionalism for the global peacemaking landscape. By providing a new conceptualization of an emerging phenomenon in contemporary peace processes, we contribute to the literature on changing peacemaking approaches.

INDIA AT 2050: FORECASTING INDIA'S GDP USING AUTOREGRESSIVE INTEGRATED MOVING AVERAGE (ARIMA)

The global power structure has evolved dramatically since World War II, transitioning from a bipolar world through unipolar dominance to today's multipolar reality. While the United States maintains significant influence, emerging powers like China and Russia, alongside an increasingly assertive Global South, are reshaping international dynamics. This transformation has given rise to ‘Collaborative Coexistence,' where nations prioritize pragmatic cooperation over ideological alignment. Within this context, India's emergence, particularly since 2014, represents a remarkable story of economic growth and diplomatic maturity. The country now stands as an economic competitor to the US and China while pursuing an independent political path, balancing neutrality with active participation in addressing global challenges. Drawing strength from its democratic foundations and multilateral approach, India has gained substantial international influence. Economic projections using ARIMA (Auto Regressive Integrated Moving Average) methodology suggest India's economy could exceed USD 27 trillion by 2050. This paper employs ARIMA (2,1,3) and examines this trajectory through 2050, arguing that these developments position India to define what may become the 'Indian Century.'

Digital Plurilateralism in International Economic Law

Abstract The rise of the digital economy has prompted states to turn to domestic law – including data localization, source code disclosure requirements, digital asset restrictions, and digital services taxes – to address its challenges. Simultaneously, states are increasingly leveraging plurilateral frameworks, such as the Indo-Pacific Economic Framework for Prosperity (IPEF), and plurilateral agreements, such as the Joint Statement Initiative (JSI) on e-commerce in the World Trade Organization (WTO), to address the economic and geoeconomic challenges posed by the digital economy. The article examines the role of plurilateralism and plurilateral agreements in regulating the digital economy. It explores plurilateralism as a regulatory strategy for digital technologies in international trade, both within and outside the WTO. It also compares digital plurilateralism with other modalities of international governance, including multilateral and regional approaches. The article concludes by underscoring the merits of plurilateralism as a form of ‘unilateral multilateralism’ and explores its potential to shape future international ordering in the digital economy.

THE ROLE OF PUBLIC DIPLOMACY AND PARADIPLOMACY AS INSTRUMENTS FOR STRENGTHENING POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS IN THE DIGITAL DIMENSION

The article conducts a comprehensive study of the role of public diplomacy and paradiplomacy as instruments for strengthening political institutions in the digital dimension. It is noted that in the modern era, the integration of digital technologies into political systems has become one of the most transformative phenomena in global governance. The rapid spread of digital tools, ranging from social media platforms and online communication channels to artificial intelligence and big data analytics, has not only revolutionized the functioning of political institutions but has also altered the dynamics of international relations. As governments strive to adapt to this digital age, the intersection of technology with political practice presents both opportunities and challenges in fortifying political institutions at both national and global levels. Public diplomacy, which traditionally deals with projecting a nation’s image, values, and policies to foreign audiences, increasingly finds itself in the realm of the digital world. Through digital tools, states can directly engage with foreign audiences, establish global partnerships, and protect national interests in real-time. Furthermore, paradiplomacy, concerning the foreign policy initiatives and international activities of subnational entities such as cities, regions, and provinces, has been expanded by digital platforms that enable local governments to foster international cooperation. In conclusion, it is particularly emphasized that the intersection of public diplomacy and paradiplomacy in the digital sphere underscores the importance of a multilateral approach to governance. By engaging civil society, non-governmental organizations, and private sector actors in diplomatic efforts, political institutions can create more inclusive governance structures based on participation. The use of social networks and other digital platforms fosters dialogue and collaboration, ensuring that diverse voices are heard in the policymaking process.

Optimising Multilateral Cooperation in Combating Cybercrime to Enhance National Vigilance

Purpose: The increasing sophistication of cybercrime poses a significant threat to national security, necessitating enhanced multilateral cooperation. This study examines the role of international collaboration in combating cyber threats, focusing on frameworks that bolster national vigilance. The research explores strategic initiatives, legal harmonisation, and intelligence-sharing mechanisms to optimise cyber resilience through coordinated multilateral efforts. Study Design/Methodology/Approach: A qualitative research methodology underpins this study, incorporating literature reviews of primary and secondary data sources. The analysis applies a SWOT framework to assess strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats in global cybercrime cooperation. Additionally, a deductive analytical approach evaluates existing theoretical cybersecurity models, refining them based on contemporary empirical data. This method allows for a structured examination of international cyber governance frameworks, providing insights into their effectiveness and areas for improvement. Findings: The study identifies multilateral cooperation as essential in countering cyber threats. States engaged in intelligence-sharing, legal harmonisation, and coordinated cyber defences demonstrate stronger resilience. However, disparities in national regulations, trust deficits, and technological asymmetries impede effective collaboration. Strengthening cyber diplomacy, enhancing legal interoperability, and investing in joint cybersecurity capacity-building initiatives are critical to overcoming these challenges. Originality/Value: This study advances cybersecurity governance research by integrating SWOT analysis and deductive reasoning to evaluate multilateral approaches. Unlike previous studies that focus on unilateral or regional cybersecurity policies, this research highlights how adaptive and harmonised strategies enhance national resilience. The findings provide policymakers with actionable insights to reinforce cyber defences through robust international cooperation.

The Role of International Cooperation in Indonesia’s Maritime Security: Study Case of MT Arman 114

Purpose: This study explores the critical role of Indonesia's maritime domain in national development, focusing on its function as a connector for its archipelagic geography and a repository of natural resources. It highlights biological resources, such as fisheries, and non-biological resources, including natural gas and oil reserves, while emphasising the importance of safeguarding and optimising these assets for sustainable growth. Study Design/Methodology/Approach: The research utilises a qualitative approach, using secondary data from government reports, academic studies, and international maritime frameworks. A thematic analysis examines challenges and opportunities in Indonesia’s maritime security framework, with particular attention to non-state threats and the role of international cooperation. Findings: Indonesia’s vast maritime territory, covering 6.4 million square kilometres, offers significant economic and environmental benefits. However, these benefits face threats from illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, transnational crimes, and environmental degradation. Limited maritime security resources further hinder effective threat mitigation. Originality/Value: This study highlights the need for a multilateral approach to maritime security challenges. Drawing on the case of the Iranian supertanker MT Arman 114, it underscores the importance of international cooperation and technological advancements in strengthening Indonesia’s maritime security. The research contributes to the broader discourse on maritime security and regional stability in Southeast Asia

China's Geopolitical Strategies towards Southeast Asia: Understanding the Relevance of the Rimland Theory

China's relation with the Southeast Asian nations has been going through many ups and downs. The cold war geopolitics spread adversity and conflicts among the Southeast Asian states and the major powers. China's secret support and assistance toward the communist parties of the ASEAN nations and the USA's secret campaigns from their borders against the Chinese communists had multiplied that hostility. The Sino-USSR split, longevity of Vietnam war and China with nuclear weapons might help normalize the Sino-US relation. China like other major powers, the USA and the USSR, had utilized the Southeast Asia's land to contain others ideological and military aggression. Its gradual but the continuation of measured steps in the Southeast Asia assisted it to normalize the hostile relationship. In this regard, its various diplomatic policies like "open-door policy", "good neighbor policy", etc. and economic strategies like "ASEAN- China Free-Trade Area", and "the Belt and Road Initiative" etc. play a significant role. Their relation is now not limited to the good neighbors only; it has also been lifted to "development-partner" status. Aiming at the geopolitical interest, China has adopted both the bilateral and multilateral approach and a series of strategic policies and financial programs to penetrate the Southeast Asian states into the Sino goals. This qualitative paper, based on the secondary data sources, has endeavored to provide a comprehensive analysis of the Chinese geopolitical interests and strategies to the Southeast Asian states as per changes in its power and capabilities. It argues that the significance of the Rimland theory has not declined with the end of cold war rather it still dominates the foreign relations of Southeast Asia with both China and other major powers.

National Security Strategies Amidst Increasing Global Cyber Threats: A Multilateral Approach

In today's digital age, the development of information technology has a significant impact on various sectors, including the economy, politics and security. While technology provides opportunities for efficiency and innovation, it also introduces increasingly complex cyber threats. Cyberattacks now target not only individuals, but also large institutions, multinational corporations and governments, resulting in economic losses and threatening the socio-political stability of a country. Indonesia, like many other countries, faces growing cyber threats, including e-HAC data leaks and ransomware attacks. These threats require a multilateral approach due to their cross-border nature and the involvement of highly capable actors, whether individuals, criminal groups or specific states. This research aims to explore national security strategies in dealing with global cyber threats through a multilateral approach. The main focus is to identify how international cooperation can improve the effectiveness of a country's cybersecurity and analyze the challenges in implementing this strategy. Using a qualitative approach and descriptive-analytical design, this research collected secondary data from official documents, reports of international organizations, as well as relevant journal articles. The results of this research are expected to provide useful recommendations for policymakers in formulating national security strategies that are more resilient and responsive to evolving cyber threats

Ict Sector Competitiveness: A Comparative Analysis Of Ukraine And Other 7 Eastern European Countries

Ukraine’s ICT sector remains one of the most promising industries in the country, as it continues to grow and develop despite difficult economic and political conditions. Through comparative analysis, this paper evaluates Ukraine's ICT sector performance and competitiveness within the region. The conducted research confirms the proper development of the ICT infrastructure, human capital and ICT services export by Ukraine’s ICT sector. However, there has been a decline in Ukraine's scientific and research activities, in particular, a reduction in the number of scientists and ICT patents issued, a decline in GERD as a % of GDP and the volume of high-tech exports. We noted that the main competitive disadvantage of Ukraine’s ICT sector is opaque and ineffective domestic legislation on the protection of property rights, combating corruption, ensuring economic freedoms, etc., which in turn prevents the ICT sector of Ukraine from strengthening its own competitive advantages and reduces its investment attractiveness. Finally, we emphasized the need for a multilateral approach to restructuring Ukraine’s ICT sector, taking into account domestic legislation update, strengthening security measures to protect the ICT infrastructure, and further development of highly qualified human capital for the ICT sector.

Pemanfaatan Hukum Internasional dalam Penyelesaian Sengketa Laut China Selatan: Analisis dengan Pendekatan Doktrinal

The South China Sea is a strategic region of global significance, both economically and geopolitically. It serves as a major global trade route, with over 30% of global trade passing through it annually. Additionally, the South China Sea is rich in natural resources, including oil, gas, and abundant marine products. However, overlapping territorial claims among countries such as China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and Indonesia have triggered prolonged geopolitical tensions. This study aims to analyze the role of international law, particularly UNCLOS 1982, as the primary framework for resolving these disputes. Using a doctrinal approach, the study examines primary legal documents, such as UNCLOS 1982, the 2016 Arbitration Award, and ASEAN agreements. Data shows an average of 15 annual conflicts in the South China Sea over the past decade, with a significant increase from 5 cases in 2014 to 25 cases in 2023. While UNCLOS 1982 provides a clear legal framework, non-compliance with arbitration rulings, such as China's refusal to adhere to the 2016 ruling, highlights weaknesses in enforcement mechanisms and sanctions. This study emphasizes that multilateral approaches based on international law, supported by regional mechanisms like ASEAN, have yet to achieve full effectiveness. The findings offer strategic recommendations, including reforming international sanction mechanisms and strengthening ASEAN frameworks to support conflict resolution and ensure sustainable stability in the region

UN Tax Pillars to Address Capital Concentration (through Inheritance Levies) and Wealth Flight (through Exit Taxes) – Implications for the European Union

The article investigates the rising concentration of capital ownership, drawing evidence from the United States, Germany and other European states, and its impact on widening wealth inequality. It warns of modern economies morphing into an “inheritocracy”, where corporate equity and financial assets concentrate across generations. The analysis sheds light on the limitations of income tax systems in addressing wealth inequality in the context of high capital mobility. To tackle these challenges and building on the OECD’s experience with a global minimum tax for large corporations, the article advocates for a UN-led multilateral approach supporting Global Minimum Inheritance Taxes and a Global Minimum Exit Tax to prevent a race to the bottom in taxing high-net-worth individuals and deter wealth flight. By coordinating these taxes at a supranational level, the article supports a fairer tax burden distribution and emphasizes the revenue potential of inheritance levies. Additionally, drawing from the US Expatriation Tax, it explores the legal feasibility of the European Union harmonizing an EU-wide exit tax to mitigate capital flight. Ultimately, these measures have the potential to enhance progressivity across tax systems.

China’s Response to the Tax Challenges of the Digital Economy: Current Stance and Future Strategies

Abstract: To address the tax challenges of the digital economy, the international community has proposed three main solutions: unilateral digital taxes, the United Nations’ bilateral solution and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s multilateral solution (Pillar One Solution). China has explicitly expressed support only for the Pillar One Solution. Its support can be attributed to two primary reasons. First, the Pillar One Solution, as a multilateral approach, aligns with China’s international tax strategy, which favours multilateralism. Second, the Pillar One Solution aligns with China’s economic interests, considering its impact on China’s fiscal revenue, multinational enterprises and administrative costs. Given the uncertainty surrounding the implementation of the Pillar One Solution, this article explores China’s legal strategy for implementing it and examines alternative measures that China can adopt if the Pillar One Solution fails.