Multiteam Systems Research Articles

How Team Voice Contributes to Construction Project Performance: The Mediating Role of Project Learning and Project Reflexivity

Voice behavior has been widely recognized as having various benefits for organizations, while researchers seldom notice its consequences in construction projects. Against this context, this study empirically explores the impact path of team voice on project performance in construction projects from a multi-team system (MTS) perspective. Considering the essence of voice behavior is to provide information, this study introduces the input–process–outcome (IPO) framework to verify how team voice can affect project performance by influencing project learning and project reflexivity. The online survey method, monetary incentive method, and chain-referral sampling method are adopted to distribute the designed questionnaire. A total of 184 data points from completed construction projects in China supported the research conclusion by adopting the partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) technique. Project learning and project reflexivity positively mediate the relationship between team voice and project performance in construction projects. Specifically, team voice can first positively influence project learning and project reflexivity, which both have a positive relationship with project performance. For theory, this study opens the black box between team voice and project performance in the context of construction projects by unveiling the mediating path of project learning and project reflexivity, which also enriches the literature on voice behavior and expands its application. Furthermore, this study provides one new perspective for MTS knowledge by adopting the IPO framework to explore the underlying mechanism between the focal team and the overall team performance of the MTS. For practice, this study has a directive function for construction project management and MTS management, while providing reminders for policymakers, researchers, and practitioners about the significance of project learning and project reflexivity on project performance.

Leadership in the multiteam system of prehospital medicine.

Emergency Medicine AustralasiaEarly View Trainee Focus Leadership in the multiteam system of prehospital medicine Natalie Kay PGDipClinEd, MBChB, Corresponding Author Natalie Kay PGDipClinEd, MBChB Emergency Medicine Specialist, Prehospital and Retrieval Medicine Doctor [email protected] Te Whatu Ora Counties Manukau, Middlemore Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand Northern Rescue Helicopter Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand Correspondence: Dr Natalie Kay, Northern Rescue Helicopter Ltd, 440 Harvard Lane, Ardmore, Auckland 2582, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author Natalie Kay PGDipClinEd, MBChB, Corresponding Author Natalie Kay PGDipClinEd, MBChB Emergency Medicine Specialist, Prehospital and Retrieval Medicine Doctor [email protected] Te Whatu Ora Counties Manukau, Middlemore Hospital, Auckland, New Zealand Northern Rescue Helicopter Ltd, Auckland, New Zealand Correspondence: Dr Natalie Kay, Northern Rescue Helicopter Ltd, 440 Harvard Lane, Ardmore, Auckland 2582, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]Search for more papers by this author First published: 21 June 2023 https://doi.org/10.1111/1742-6723.14265Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL No abstract is available for this article. References 1Hearns S (ed). Reducing the pressure from frazzle to flow. In: Peak Performance Under Pressure, 1st edn. Bridgwater: Class Professional Publishing, 2019; 233– 47. 2Lauria MJ, Gallo IA, Rush S, Brooks J, Spiegel R, Weingart S. Psychological skills to improve emergency care providers' performance under stress. Ann. Emerg. Med. 2017; 70: 884– 90. 3 New Zealand Government. Coordinated Incident Management System (CIMS), 3rd edn. Wellington: Officials' Committee for Domestic and External Security Coordination, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, 2019. 4Stoate JM. Together or apart: modelling the inter-agency workings of emergency response multiteam systems (PhD thesis). Leeds: Leeds University Business School, 2015. 5 Fire and Emergency New Zealand. What We Do and Why We Do It. Wellington: Fire and Emergency New Zealand, 2023. [Cited Apr 2023.] Available from URL: https://fireandemergency.nz/about-us/what-we-do/ 6 Fire and Emergency New Zealand. Annual Report 2022. Wellington: Fire and Emergency New Zealand, 2023. [Cited Jun 2023.] Available from URL: https://www.fireandemergency.nz/assets/Documents/FENZ_Annual_Report_2022.pdf 7Hylander J, Saveman B, Bjornstig U, Gyllencreutz L. Prehospital management provided by medical on-scene commanders in tunnel incidents in Oslo, Norway – an interview study. Scand. J. Trauma Resusc. Emerg. Med. 2019; 27: 78. 8Calland V, Williams P. Scene safety and assessment. In: T Nutbeam, M Boylan, eds. ABC of Prehospital Emergency Medicine. Chichester: Wiley, 2013; 13. 9Low A, Hulme J. ABC of Transfer and Retrieval Medicine, 1st edn. Chichester: Wiley, 2015. 10Salas E, Granados DD, Klein C et al. Does team training improve team performance? A meta-analysis. Hum. Factors 2008; 50: 903– 33. 11Carson JB, Tesluk PE, Marrone JA. Shared leadership in teams: an investigation of antecedent conditions and performance. Acad. Manag. J. 2007; 50: 1217– 34. 12Diviney R. Why Dynamic Subordination Is Required for High-Functioning Teams. [Updated 2 Aug 2022; cited 28 May 2023.] Available from URL: https://theattributes.com/blog/why-dynamic-subordination-is-required-for-high-performing-teams Early ViewOnline Version of Record before inclusion in an issue ReferencesRelatedInformation

Dead Reckoning: A Multiteam System Approach to Commentaries on the Drake-S Equation for Survival

We used a multiteam system approach (MTS) to map the critical and constructive feedback from four invited Commentaries on Rock et al.’s (2023) probabilistic analysis of purported evidence for postmortem survival. The goal was to mine actionable insights to guide future research with the potential for important learnings or breakthroughs about the nature or limits of human consciousness and their relation to transpersonal psychology. The commentators’ input identified only a few measurable variables or empirical tactics that conceivably challenge or refine our latest Drake-S Equation for survival. However, a review of these suggestions using logical and statistical criteria revealed that none immediately upend our previous conclusion that the published effect sizes for various Known Confounds (including hypothetical "living agent psi") do not fully account for the published prevalence rates of Anomalous Experiences traditionally interpretated as survival. However, the commentators proposed several good recommendations for new studies that could eventually alter this calculus. Accordingly, we outline the architecture of a proposed cross-disciplinary research program that extends the present MTS approach and its collected insights and focuses strictly on empiricism over rhetoric in this domain. The results of this coordinated effort should likewise help to clarify a range of psychological and biomedical phenomena that speak to the nature and limits of human consciousness.

Naturalistic observations of multiteam interaction networks: Implications for cognition in crisis management teams

Interaction has been recognised as an essential lens to understand how cognition is formed in a complex adaptive team such as a multidisciplinary crisis management team (CMT). However, little is known about how interactions within and across CMTs give rise to the multi-team system’s overall cognitive functioning, which is essential to avoid breakdowns in coordination. To address this gap, we characterise and compare the component CMTs’ role-as-intended (RAI) and role-as-observed (RAO) in adapting to the complexity of managing informational needs. To characterise RAI, we conducted semi-structured interviews with subject matter experts and then made a qualitative synthesis using a thematic analysis method. To characterise RAO, we observed multiteam interaction networks in real-time at a simulated training environment and then analysed the component CMTs’ relative importance using node centrality measures. The resulting inconsistencies between RAI and RAO imply the need to investigate cognition in multiple CMTs through the lens of interaction. Practitioner summary: When a disaster occurs, multidisciplinary CMTs are expected to serve their roles as described in written or verbal guidelines. However, according to our naturalistic observations of multiteam interaction networks, such descriptions may be (necessary but) insufficient for designing, training, and evaluating CMTs in the complexity of managing informational needs together.

Communication quality affects performance of astronauts and support teams through increased workload: Insights from the AMADEE-20 analog Mars mission

Astronaut crews and ground control support teams are highly interdependent teams that need to communicate effectively to achieve a safe mission - despite being separated by large distances. Team communication quality with its facets clarity of objectives and information flow, is a key coordination process to achieve high team performance and task satisfaction. Especially in interdependent teams working in extreme environments with time-delayed communications, the team's success is threatened if communication is ineffective. In this study, we hypothesized that communication quality affects two key team outcomes, performance and task satisfaction, and that these effects can be explained by increases in workload (effort and frustration). Hypotheses were tested during the AMADEE-20 analog Mars mission hosted by the Austrian Space Forum. The analog astronauts (AA) were supported by an On-Site-Support (OSS) team and a remote Mission-Support-Centre (MSC) team. The MSC was the only contact line for both AA and OSS, and the communication between them had a one-way time delay of 10 min. Our study consisted of three runs in which members across the three different multiteam systems had to exchange information to solve an interdependent task. We measured communication quality, effort and frustration, task satisfaction, and team performance. Results show that clarity of objectives and information flow positively impacted multiteam system performance. Furthermore, clarity of objectives reduced experienced effort and this in turn enhances team performance. High levels of information flow reduced experienced frustration, which in turn enhanced task satisfaction. Our findings show that these facets of communication quality are essential for multiteam systems that work separated from each other by a distance. We stress that specific (team) communication training for astronauts and support personnel will be key to effective teamwork during future Mars missions, and thus to overall mission success.

A Study of Healthcare Team Communication Networks using Visual Analytics.

Cooperation among teams or individuals of healthcare professionals (HCPs) is one of the crucial factors towards patients' survival outcome. However, it is challenging to uncover and understand such factors in the complex Multiteam System (MTS) communication networks representing daily HCP cooperation. In this paper, we present a study on MTS communication networks constructed with real-world cancer patients' Electronic Health Record (EHR) access logs. We adopt a visual analytics workflow to extract associations between semantic characteristics of MTS communication networks and the patients' survival outcomes. The workflow consists of a neural network learning phase to classify the data based on the chosen input and output attributes, a dimensionality reduction and optimization phase to produce a simplified set of results for examination, and finally an interpreting phase conducted by the user through an interactive visualization interface. We provide the insights found using this workflow with two case studies and an expert interview.

Interteam Learning in Multiteam New Product Development Programs

Learning is a fundamental aspect of innovative new product development (NPD), and research shows that failures are a source of learning in NPD programs. However, little is known about the role of learning from successful experiences. We develop a model for learning from both success and failure, based on the characteristics of multiteam systems (MTS) and product complexity. Quantitative analysis of 167 NPD programs organized as MTS suggests that learning from success is crucial for NPD innovation at all levels of product complexity, while the effectiveness of learning from failure diminishes with increasing product complexity. Qualitative interviews provide further insights.

Top management team and board of directors as the strategic leadership system: The effect of behavioral integration on strategic decision-making quality

Research on the actors involved in firms' strategic decision-making moves towards the principle that both the top management team (TMT) and the board of directors should be considered more as one interdependent collective. In this study, we view firm governance from a multiteam systems perspective and consider the TMT and board as the strategic leadership system (SLS). Our main goal is to examine whether a higher level of behavioral integration (i.e., interdependence) within the strategic leadership system (SLS BI) leads to higher levels of strategic decision-making quality. Simultaneously, we consider the moderating role of the firm's industry competitiveness (i.e., environmental complexity) as a factor that may increase the cruciality of board-TMT interdependence to reach high quality strategic decisions. Based on a unique multiple respondent sample of 375 SLS members from 47 Belgian private family firms, we find that SLS BI positively affects strategic decision-making quality. Additionally, results indicate that higher environmental complexity strengthens the positive effect of SLS BI on strategic decision-making quality.

Bridging the boundary without sinking the team: Communication, identification, and creativity in multiteam systems.

Bridging the boundary without sinking the team: Communication, identification, and creativity in multiteam systems.

Learning in MTS of Construction Megaproject: A Conceptual Framework

The construction megaproject team (CMPT) emphasises integration as a megaproject multiteam system (MTS) to facilitate knowledge learning. This paper synthesises the CMPT structure characteristics and team learning processes into a conceptual framework named the CMPT-MTS learning framework to advance future CMPT learning research. The constructs included are identified from published research. A case example is the island and tunnel project of the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macao Bridge, which provides practical grounding for framework refinement. The conceptual framework deemed to follow a cyclical pattern identifies the CMPT-MTS structure variables and team learning processes affecting learning outcomes and contextual variables hypothesised to influence the intra- and inter-team interaction. We discuss how the conceptual framework might identify the CMPT learning research gaps for future research. The framework’s contribution to the body of knowledge expands our lens to understand team learning practices in the complex CMPT by considering CMPT as an MTS.

Shared mental models in multi-team systems: improving enterprise system implementation

PurposeAn enterprise system (ES) implementation proceeds as a multi-team system (MTS), with multiple project teams spanning time and business functions to meet organization-wide goals. Thus, the focus shifts from the output of a single project team to the outcomes of all ES project teams as part of the larger MTS. This study extends concepts of shared mental models (SMMs) in aspects of goals and plans in both MTS level and project team level and further examines SMMs' interactive impact on the MTS-based project performance.Design/methodology/approachThis study tests the model with survey data from 140 MTS-based ES implementations in China. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS SEM) served to test the hypothesized relationships.FindingsSMMs of project team-level goals and plans contribute to the cooperation and coordination in the ES implementation and thereby improve final implementation efficiency either directly or in combination. However, SMMs of MTS-level goal and plans contribute integration only when considered with achievements at the project level.Originality/valuePrior literature suggests a critical role of integration among ES project teams but finds challenges in achieving such integration. By leveraging shared mental model theory, the authors' results show that both common goal and plan understandings in the integration team critically influence integration in ES implementation and, thus, the final ES implementation efficiency, though not in a strictly linear relationship.

Inter-team coordination in multiteam systems: Mechanisms, transitions, and precipitants

Coordination among the teams of a multiteam system is necessary in order to initiate and maintain inter-team interdependence. In turn, coordinated interdependence is required if the teams in a multiteam system are to work together toward a common outcome and succeed as an organized entity. A literature review indicates that multiteam research has indicated that three basic coordination mechanisms—mutual adjustment, direct supervision, and standardization—are used to coordinate interdependence among teams. The review also reveals that multiteam systems research has seldom examined transitions among inter-team coordination mechanisms and has rarely investigated precipitants that trigger mechanism transitions. In light of this finding, this article describes theorized transitions and identifies precipitant factors likely to stimulate these transitions. It concludes that transitions and precipitants merit significant attention in future multiteam systems research in order to render a more complete understanding of inter-team coordination.

Abstract B126: Examining Medicaid-serving primary care teams and delivery context on quality of care transitions to oncology: Implications for health equity

Abstract Purpose: Care transitions, from primary care to oncology, for Medicaid enrollees are understudied and likely contribute to quality and outcome disparities. We explore multi-team systems (MTS) (care coordination tasks and teamwork) to understand variations in breast and colorectal cancer care transitions in Medicaid-serving clinics. Methods and Materials: We conducted a comparative case study of three purposively recruited primary care clinics in New Jersey, based on clinic-level care transition performance (Medicaid enrollees’ receipt of guideline-concordant treatment). Site evaluations, conducted in 2019-2020, included observation (2-3 days) and interviews. Insights into performance variation emerged from a two-phase analytic approach. Results: Performance variations may stem from adaptations of MTS inputs and processes based on contextual factors (i.e., business model, clinic culture). Clinic 1 (average performer), part of a multi-site safety-net clinic system, mainly teamed outside of their organization, relying on designated roles, protocol-based care, and quality improvement informed by within team metrics. Clinic 2 (high performer), part of a for-profit health system, remained mission driven to improve urban health, teamed exclusively with internal teams with electronically enabled between team information exchange, and health system wide quality improvement efforts. Clinic 3, (low performer), a physician-owned private practice with minimal teaming, accepted Medicaid enrollees to diversify their payer mix and relied on referral-based care with limited consideration of social barriers. Conclusion: MTS’s adapt their care coordination in response to context. Addressing disparities in cancer care coordination for Medicaid populations should prioritize the implementation of policy that leverage clinic attributes and the boundary status of interdependent teams. Citation Format: Denalee M. O'Malley, Michelle Doose, Jenna Howard, Joel C. Cantor, Benjamin F. Crabtree, Jennifer Tsui. Examining Medicaid-serving primary care teams and delivery context on quality of care transitions to oncology: Implications for health equity [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 15th AACR Conference on the Science of Cancer Health Disparities in Racial/Ethnic Minorities and the Medically Underserved; 2022 Sep 16-19; Philadelphia, PA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2022;31(1 Suppl):Abstract nr B126.

"Teams Made of Teams"—A Review of Research on Multi-Team Systems

The reason teams are so popular today is that as organizations reorganize to compete more effectively, they see them as a way to better leverage the talents of their employees. Teams can make products, deliver services, negotiate, coordinate projects, make recommendations, and make decisions. Next, let's briefly describe the four most common types of teams in organizations: problem-solving teams, self-managed teams, cross-functional teams, and virtual teams. Then, introduce the multi-team system, which uses a "team of teams" model. Such systems are becoming more common as the complexity of work increases. Multi-team collaboration is one of the effective ways to handle complex environments and accomplish dynamic tasks. It has been widely used in the field of cooperative R&D and emergency management, and has become an important topic of common interest in the practice and academic communities. This paper synthesizes previous research on multi-team systems and presents some suggestions and future research directions for MTS.

Exploring team dynamics during the development of a multi-institutional cross-disciplinary translational team: Implications for potential best practices.

A recent literature review revealed no studies that explored teams that used an explicit theoretical framework for multiteam systems in academic settings, such as the increasingly important multi-institutional cross-disciplinary translational team (MCTT) form. We conducted an exploratory 30-interview grounded theory study over two rounds to analyze participants' experiences from three universities who assembled an MCTT in order to pursue a complex grant proposal related to research on post-acute sequelae of COVID-19, also called "long COVID." This article considers activities beginning with preliminary discussions among principal investigators through grant writing and submission, and completion of reviews by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, which resulted in the proposal not being scored. There were two stages to this interview study with MCTT members: pre-submission, and post-decision. Round one focused on the process of developing structures to collaborate on proposal writing and assembly, whereas round two focused on evaluation of the complete process. A total of 15 participants agreed to be interviewed in each round. The first round of interviews was conducted prior to submission and explored issues during proposal writing, including (1) importance of the topic; (2) meaning and perception of "team" within the MCTT context; and (3) leadership at different levels of the team. The second round explored best practices-related issues including (1) leadership and design; (2) specific proposal assembly tasks; (3) communication; and (4) critical events. We conclude with suggestions for developing best practices for assembling MCTTs involving multi-institutional teams.

Clinical Multiteam System Composition and Complexity Among Newly Diagnosed Early-Stage Breast, Colorectal, and Lung Cancer Patients With Multiple Chronic Conditions: A SEER-Medicare Analysis.

Sixty percent of adults have multiple chronic conditions at cancer diagnosis. These patients may require a multidisciplinary clinical team-of-teams, or a multiteam system (MTS), of high-complexity involving multiple specialists and primary care, who, ideally, coordinate clinical responsibilities, share information, and align clinical decisions to ensure comprehensive care needs are managed. However, insights examining MTS composition and complexity among individuals with cancer and comorbidities at diagnosis using US population-level data are limited. Using SEER-Medicare data (2006-2016), we identified newly diagnosed patients with breast, colorectal, or lung cancer who had a codiagnosis of cardiopulmonary disease and/or diabetes (n = 75,201). Zaccaro's theory-based classification of MTSs was used to categorize clinical MTS complexity in the 4 months following cancer diagnosis: high-complexity (≥ 4 clinicians from ≥ 2 specialties) and low-complexity (1-3 clinicians from 1-2 specialties). We describe the proportions of patients with different MTS compositions and quantify the incidence of high-complexity MTS care by patient groups. The most common MTS composition was oncology with primary care (37%). Half (50.3%) received high-complexity MTS care. The incidence of high-complexity MTS care for non-Hispanic Black and Hispanic patients with cancer was 6.7% (95% CI, -8.0 to -5.3) and 4.7% (95% CI, -6.3 to -3.0) lower than non-Hispanic White patients with cancer; 13.1% (95% CI, -14.1 to -12.2) lower for rural residents compared with urban; 10.4% (95% CI, -11.2 to -9.5) lower for dual Medicaid-Medicare beneficiaries compared with Medicare-only; and 16.6% (95% CI, -17.5 to -15.8) lower for colorectal compared with breast cancer. Incidence differences of high-complexity MTS care were observed among cancer patients with multiple chronic conditions from underserved populations. The results highlight the need to further understand the effects of and mechanisms through which care team composition, complexity, and functioning affect care quality and outcomes.

Understanding the Impact of Medicaid-Serving Primary Care Team Functioning and Clinical Context on Cancer Care Treatment Quality: Implications for Addressing Structural Inequities.

Primary care factors related to Medicaid enrollees' receipt of guideline concordant cancer treatment is understudied; however, team structure and processes likely affect care disparities. We explore Medicaid-serving primary care teams functioning within multiteam systems to understand performance variations in quality of breast and colorectal cancer care. We conducted a comparative case study, using critical case sampling of primary care clinics in New Jersey, to provide maximum variation on clinic-level care performance rates (Medicaid enrollees' receipt of guideline-concordant treatment). Site evaluations, conducted from 2019 to 2020, included observation (2-3 days) and interviews. Using a multistep analytic process, we explored contextual factors within primary care that may contribute to cancer care performance variations. We identified performance variations stemming from adaptations of multiteam system inputs and processes on the basis of contextual factors (ie, business model, clinic culture). Team 1 (average performer), part of a multisite safety-net clinic system, mainly teamed outside their organization, relying on designated roles, protocol-based care, and quality improvement informed by within-team metrics. Team 2 (high performer), part of a for-profit health system, remained mission-driven to improve urban health, teamed exclusively with internal teams through electronically enabled information exchange and health system-wide quality improvement efforts. Team 3 (low performer), a physician-owned private practice with minimal teaming, accepted Medicaid enrollees to diversify their payer mix and relied on referral-based care with limited consideration of social barriers. Primary care team structures and processes variations may (in part) explain performance variations. Future research aiming to improve care quality for Medicaid populations should consider primary care teams' capacity and context in relation to composite teams to support care quality improvements in subsequent prospective trials.

Interdependent Infrastructures as a Multiteam System: Enhancing Resilience

Interdependent Infrastructures as a Multiteam System: Enhancing Resilience

The dynamics of coordination patterns in multiteam systems response to emergency: Case study from a pharmaceutical enterprise.

Effective coordination of multiteam systems (MTSs) can help enterprises respond quickly to complex and uncertain problems under disasters. However, it is unclear how MTS coordination patterns dynamically affect MTS performance in disasters. This study examined how MTSs responded to an emergency production incident at the Zhejiang Huisong Pharmaceutical Company in China during the COVID-19 pandemic through a qualitative and quantitative study. Based on social network theory, we found that a centralized coordination pattern impacts MTS performance by giving play to the leadership team's network centrality position advantage during the crisis outbreak period. In the post-crisis period, the decentralized coordination pattern impacts MTS performance by giving play to the advantages of horizontal coordination. Our results help managers to consider the dynamics of coordination patterns in crisis management in ways that assist them in adapting an effective coordination pattern to changing and uncertain operational conditions.

From local to the whole: understanding construction projects as multiteam systems

PurposeIn today's digital and post-pandemic era, construction teams can span their boundary to obtain important resources and support in computer-mediated ways. However, the benefits of computer-mediated team boundary spanning (TBS) are mostly assumed. Empirical evidence for these benefits is in lack. Thus, this study attempts to investigate the influence of computer-mediated (instant messaging in this study) TBS on construction project performance and the underlying mechanism.Design/methodology/approachFrom the multiteam system (MTS) perspective, this study employs the input-process-outcome (IPO) framework and coordination theory to explore the influence of instant messaging-based team boundary spanning (IMTBS) on construction project coordination processes and project performance. A theoretical model is built and validated with a survey involving 206 construction projects.FindingsResults show that IMTBS positively affects knowledge integration and project coordination, but negatively affects project commitment. The positive link between IMTBS and project performance is attributable to knowledge integration and project coordination. Further, project commitment is also found to negatively mediate the relationship between IMTBS and construction project performance.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is the first to empirically investigate the influence of TBS on construction project performance. As such, this study contributes to the literature on TBS in the construction field. In addition, the findings of this study unveil the double-edged characteristic of IMTBS, which should attract managers' attention. This also indicates that the form of TBS is a significant determinant of its effectiveness, which should attract scholars' attention in the future.