Morus alba Linn. leaf as a food and drug homologs: chemical composition and structure, biological activity, mechanism of action, research progress on its biosynthetic pathway, and application challenges in future food

Fixation technology plays a crucial role in the processing of mulberry leaf green tea (MLGT); however, the effect of different fixation treatments on tea quality remains unexplored. The present study comprehensively investigates the antioxidant capacity, key non-volatile compounds (free amino acids, tea polyphenols, soluble sugars, total flavonoids, and alkaloids), and volatile profile of MLGT produced with four fixation techniques, namely hot-air roller, microwave, blanching, and steam. The key non-volatile compounds and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and FRAP evaluation systems) were highest in the microwave-processed MLGT sample. A total of 1025 volatile compounds were identified using headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and aldehydes were the most predominant aromatic compounds in MLGT. The total content of aromatic compounds (peak area) was highest in the hot-air roller processed MLGT sample. Notably, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1-cyclohexen-1-yl)-3-buten-2-one, (E)-1-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadien-1-yl)-2-buten-1-one, 5-(Z)-4-heptenal, (E,Z)-2,6-nonadienal, and 1-hepten-3-one were identified as key odor-active compounds (rOAV ≥ 100), which contributed floral, soybean, fatty, and green notes. These compounds were least abundant in the blanched MLGT sample. In addition, 481 differential volatiles were identified as contributing to the aromatic profile based on partial least squares discriminant analysis with variable importance in projection > 1 and P < 0.05. Flavor annotation from these differential compounds revealed that the microwave-processed MLGT sample contained the highest levels of desirable aromas (e.g., sweet, fruity, nutty, woody, and herbal), while the blanched tea sample had the lowest levels of unpleasant notes (e.g., green, spicy, and fatty). Microwave and blanching are recommended fixation methods for MLGT processing. This study provides a theoretical basis for optimizing fixation technologies to enhance the flavor quality and health-related properties of MLGT. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus is increasing year by year globally, but the existing drugs have limitations, and there is still a great demand for natural, complementary hypoglycemic strategies. Mulberry leaves have a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine for “Xiaoke.” The aim of this review is to summarize the functional constituents with hypoglycemic potential in mulberry leaves, to explore their multiple mechanisms of action, to evaluate the preclinical and clinical evidence, and to discuss the prospects and challenges of their application as dietary supplements. Mulberry leaves are rich in a variety of functional constituents, which show good potential to assist in glycemic control through multi-target pathways such as inhibition of carbohydrate digestive enzymes, regulation of glucose absorption, improvement of insulin sensitivity, protection of pancreatic β-cells and anti-oxidative stress. However, more high-quality clinical studies are needed to standardize the dosage and formulation.

Nowadays, traditional mulberry leaf-based sericulture has faced challenges such as low efficiency and environmental dependency. Consequently, artificial-diet based sericulture has been developed and recognized as promising alternative for cocoon production. However, comparative studies on the characteristics of cocoons produced via these two methods are limited. This study aims to investigate the effects of mulberry leaf (Mul) and artificial-diet (Art) rearing on the structural and functional properties of industrially produced silk. The results revealed that Mul silk exhibits higher sericin content, while Art silk demonstrates a greater propensity for crystallization, attributing to its distinct amino acid composition and therefore exhibiting 3.3% higher crystallinity and improved thermal stability. Mechanical property analysis shows a decreasing trend in the breaking strength of cocoon silk from outer to inner layer, and significant difference is exhibited among inner layer silk. Additionally, the higher expression of specific proteins such as cadherins in Mul silk appear to support the filamentation process and overall quality. Both silk have similar antibacterial properties and raw silk reeled from Art-cocoons achieves 5A grade. This study provides valuable insights into how different feeding methods impact silk structure and properties, offering guidance for silkworm rearing practices and contributing to the sustainable development of sericulture.

Background: Sericulture depends on high-quality mulberry leaves, but weed infestation significantly reduces yield by competing for resources and harboring pests. Effective weed management is crucial to improve leaf production and raw silk yield. Aims: To comprehensively synthesize current knowledge on weed management in mulberry ecosystems, evaluating the efficacy, economics and ecological impacts of various control strategies to sustain high-quality leaf yield and cocoon production. Study Design: Comprehensive Literature Review. Methodology: This review systematically aggregates and analyzes peer-reviewed literature from scientific databases including Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar. The search strategy employed keywords related to weed management in mulberry, sericulture and Bombyx mori. Studies published between 1970 and 2024 were considered, with emphasis on recent research. Data regarding weed flora composition, crop-weed competition dynamics and the efficacy of various weed control measures (cultural, mechanical, chemical and biological) were extracted, analyzed and synthesized. The review specifically focused on the cascading effects of these management practices on mulberry leaf yield, leaf biochemical quality and the subsequent physiological performance and cocoon traits of the silkworm (Bombyx mori L.). Results: Weed competition in mulberry cultivation causes severe leaf yield losses ranging from 30% to 50% and significantly deteriorates leaf nutritional quality, directly translating to inferior silkworm growth and reduced raw silk productivity. While traditional manual weeding is effective, labor scarcity and rising costs threaten its viability. Chemical herbicides offer efficient early-stage control but pose severe toxicity risks to silkworms if applied after 30 days of pruning. Integrated Weed Management (IWM), combining mulching, cover cropping, judicious herbicide application and mechanical weeding, emerges as the most sustainable approach. Emerging innovations like AI-enabled robotic weeders offer precision control with minimal environmental footprint. Conclusion: Adopting region-specific, climate-resilient Integrated Weed Management (IWM) protocols is imperative for sustaining mulberry leaf quality, ensuring silkworm health and maximizing the profitability of the sericulture industry.

Mulberry (Morus spp.) leaf quality plays a crucial role in determining the growth, cocoon productivity and reproductive performance of the silkworm Bombyx mori L. The present investigation was carried out to assess the economics of bivoltine silkworm seed crop production raised on tree mulberry fertilized with graded levels of nutrients. The experiment comprised two levels of farmyard manure (FYM), four levels of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) and foliar spray of micronutrient (POSHAN) arranged in a factorial randomized block design with sixteen treatment combinations. Economic analysis was performed by estimating cost of cultivation, gross returns, net returns and benefit–cost (B:C) ratio. Among the treatments, the highest cost of production was recorded in T16 (₹1,63,368 ha-¹ crop-¹), whereas the lowest cost was observed in T1 (₹1,04,850 ha-¹ crop-¹). In FC₁ breed, maximum gross returns of ₹4,19,237 ha-¹ crop-¹ and net returns of ₹3,12,119 ha-¹ crop-¹ were recorded in T8 (20 t FYM ha-¹ yr-¹ + 125% RDF + foliar spray of POSHAN), with the highest B:C ratio of 3.43. Similarly, in FC₂ breed, T8 recorded the highest gross returns of ₹4,38,660 ha-¹ crop-¹, net returns of ₹3,31,542 ha-¹ crop-¹ and B:C ratio of 3.59. Although T16 registered comparatively higher gross returns, its B:C ratio was lower due to increased input costs. Therefore, application of 20 t FYM ha-¹ yr-¹ combined with 125% RDF and foliar spray of POSHAN (T8) was found to be the most economically viable nutrient management practice for bivoltine seed crop production under tree mulberry cultivation. This study provides a clear economic framework for optimizing nutrient management in sericulture, particularly under tree mulberry systems. The findings are highly relevant for improving profitability and resource-use efficiency in bivoltine seed production. Additionally, the results contribute to sustainable intensification strategies by balancing input costs with productivity gains. The study also offers practical recommendations for farmers and policymakers aiming to enhance the economic viability of sericulture under field conditions.

Mulberry (Morus spp.) leaves constitute the exclusive food source for the domesticated silkworm (Bombyx mori), making their biochemical composition a critical determinant of silkworm growth, cocoon characteristics and silk productivity. Recent advances in plant metabolomics have enabled comprehensive profiling of metabolites present in mulberry leaves, providing deeper insights into the biochemical factors influencing leaf quality and insect nutrition. Mulberry leaves are rich in diverse primary metabolites, including amino acids, soluble sugars, organic acids and proteins, which are essential for silkworm metabolism and silk protein synthesis. In addition, secondary metabolites such as phenolics, flavonoids and alkaloids contribute to plant defence mechanisms and influence silkworm feeding behavior and physiological performance. Environmental conditions, including drought, salinity, temperature fluctuations and nutrient availability, significantly alter the mulberry leaf metabolome, thereby affecting larval development, cocoon weight, shell ratio and filament length. Modern analytical platforms such as gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) have facilitated the identification and quantification of key metabolites associated with improved silkworm performance. Integrating metabolomics with other multi-omics approaches, including transcriptomics and proteomics, offers new opportunities to understand gene–metabolite interactions governing mulberry leaf quality. This review highlights recent advances in mulberry leaf metabolomics, its relationship with silkworm physiology and the potential of metabolomics-guided strategies for enhancing mulberry cultivation and promoting sustainable sericulture.

Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and temperature are key components of ongoing climate change and are expected to exert significant influences on mulberry-based sericulture systems. Mulberry (Morus alba L.), a C₃ plant and the sole food source for the silkworm (Bombyx mori L.), responds strongly to elevated CO₂ through enhanced photosynthesis, increased leaf area development, and higher leaf biomass production. However, these quantitative gains are often accompanied by qualitative changes in leaf biochemistry, particularly under combined elevated CO₂ and temperature conditions. Open Top Chamber (OTC) studies conducted under tropical environments, including the Raichur experiment, demonstrate that elevated CO₂ and CO₂ + temperature treatments increase leaf sugars, total carbohydrates, phenols, and tannins, while reducing leaf nitrogen and protein content and increasing the C:N ratio. These biochemical shifts indicate a dilution of nutritional quality despite increased leaf yield. Such changes have important consequences for silkworm nutrition and physiology, as silk protein synthesis depends critically on dietary nitrogen and balanced amino acid supply. Reduced leaf protein and increased secondary metabolites are biologically expected to lower nutritional efficiency, constrain silk gland protein deposition, and induce digestive or oxidative stress, even when larval growth appears unaffected. Warming further intensifies these effects by imposing direct physiological stress on silkworms and indirectly degrading leaf functional quality. Overall, the combined effects of elevated CO₂ and temperature reveal a growing decoupling between mulberry leaf quantity and quality, highlighting the need for integrated evaluation of mulberry–silkworm interactions and adaptive management strategies to sustain sericulture productivity under future climate scenarios.

Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder linked to gut microbiota dysbiosis and impaired inter-organ metabolic signalling. This study investigated the combined effects of the probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum TJA7 and Mulberry Leaf extract (Morus alba) on cellular processes relevant to T2DM-related metabolic dysfunction. An advanced in vitro gut-pancreas-liver axis model, using Caco-2, EndoC-βH5, and HepG2 cells, was employed under hyperglycemic and oxidative stress conditions. The combined treatment consistently outperformed the individual components by improving intestinal barrier integrity, as indicated by increased transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), and by enhancing butyrate translocation across the intestinal layer. Metabolites derived from the combination attenuated pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, reducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and increased insulin secretion (1.7-fold compared with Mulberry Leaf extract alone). At the hepatic level, co-administration modulated key glucose metabolism pathways, including Insulin Receptor Substrate 1 (IRS1), Protein Kinase B (AKT), AMP-Activated Protein Kinase (AMPK), and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma Coactivator 1 Alpha (PGC-1α), suggesting improved cellular glucose handling. Collectively, these findings support a positive dose-specific interaction under the tested conditions and provide a biologically plausible, hypothesis-generating framework for probiotic-phytochemical cooperation along the gut-pancreas-liver axis. Further in vivo and clinical studies are required to establish causality and translational relevance.

Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita (Kofold and White) Chitwood) are among the most damaging pests affecting tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) production globally, leading to significant yield losses. Conventional control using synthetic nematicides is increasingly constrained due to environmental, health, and regulatory concerns, highlighting the need for safe and sustainable alternatives. This study evaluated the nematicidal potential of Morus alba L. (mulberry) leaf extracts and their effects on tomato growth parameters under controlled experimental conditions. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence of flavonoids, saponins, phenols, glycosides, tannins, and terpenoids, indicating strong bioactivity. Treatments consisted of varying extract application rates (5–25 g/plant) applied either before or after nematode inoculation. Results showed that application of mulberry extracts significantly (P less than 0.05) reduced nematode population densities and improved plant growth compared to untreated controls. The 15 g treatment applied before nematode inoculation produced the most pronounced suppression of nematode juveniles and eggs, coupled with enhanced root and stem growth. These effects are attributed to the phytochemical constituents of the extract, which may interfere with nematode metabolism and reproduction while promoting plant vigour. The findings suggest that M. alba extracts possess promising nematicidal potential and can be developed as eco-friendly biocontrol agents for sustainable tomato production.

Silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) nutrition represents a critical determinant of productivity and sustainability in sericulture, directly influencing larval growth, cocoon yield and silk quality. This review synthesizes current understanding of the nutritional requirements of B. mori, emphasizing the roles of macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids), micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, sterols) and water in supporting metabolic processes, silk protein biosynthesis and immune function. Mulberry (Morus spp.) leaf quality shaped by genotype, seasonal variation, and agronomic practices emerges as the primary factor governing silkworm performance, with protein content, carbohydrate availability, moisture levels and mineral composition showing particularly strong correlations with commercial traits. We examine the biochemical composition of mulberry leaves across cultivars and seasons, documenting their effects on larval development, digestive efficiency and cocoon parameters. The review also evaluates artificial and semi-artificial diets as alternatives to mulberry feeding, analyzing their formulation principles, comparative performance, and current limitations including altered metabolism, reduced gut microbiota diversity and variable silk quality. Nutritional interventions including fortification with amino acids, vitamins, minerals, probiotics and bioactive compounds demonstrate substantial potential for enhancing cocoon weight, shell ratio, filament length and silk protein composition, though optimal dosages and application methods require careful calibration to avoid adverse effects. Besides, nutrition significantly modulates silkworm physiology by influencing growth rate, disease resistance and energy metabolism, with probiotic supplementation and micronutrient enrichment showing particular promise for improving larval health and pathogen tolerance. The integration of strategic genotype selection optimized agronomic management of mulberry, balanced nutritional supplementation and judicious use of artificial diets offers pathways toward more productive and climate-resilient sericulture systems. Future research priorities include refining nutrient combinations for different silkworm strains and developmental stages, developing cost-effective fortification strategies, improving artificial diet formulations to better approximate mulberry nutrition and aligning sericultural practices with principles of environmental sustainability and circular agriculture.

Field experiment was conducted during winter 2019 and summer 2020, at College of Sericulture, Chintamani – 563125 to study the impact of water-soluble fertilizers on growth and yield of mulberry. The results revealed that mulberry showed positive response to fertilizer levels. Growth and yield attributes were significantly higher under 125 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM which was on par with 100 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM and 75 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM in both the seasons. But the Nutrient use efficiency is high in 75 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM applied treatment. Significantly higher leaf yield of 802.85 g/plant was registered under fertilizer dose at 125 per cent NPK through water- soluble fertilizers + FYM. Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) was markedly decreased with higher fertilizer dose (i.e. 125%) than lower fertilizer dose (75% RDF). The results indicated that 12% and 13 per cent higher NUE was registered under 75 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM compared to 125 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM in winter and summer crop respectively. From the above study, it could be concluded that application of 75 per cent NPK through water-soluble fertilizers + FYM was found to be a suitable technology for achieving higher mulberry leaf yield with enhanced fertilizer use efficiency.

A strategy for regulating conformational of mulberry leaf protein based on cold plasma modification: Implications for foaming and interfacial properties.

The purpose of this work is to isolate γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-producing lactic acid bacteria (LAB) from traditional Chinese pickles and to evaluate their fermentation characteristics and functional effects in a mulberry leaf juice system. Six GABA-producing strains were isolated, comprising five Lactobacillus plantarum strains and one Enterococcus faecium strain. These strains demonstrated significant probiotic properties, exhibiting traits such as acid tolerance, bile salt resistance, in vitro gastrointestinal resistance, cell surface hydrophobicity, auto-aggregation, γ-hemolysis, and antibiotic sensitivity. The GABA content in fermented mulberry leaf juice ranged from 0.663±0.007 to 0.879±0.023mg/mL, which was 9.61 to 12.74 times that of the initial content. Mulberry leaf juice's flavor, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity, DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging capacity, and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) were all greatly improved by the LAB fermentation. A quality evaluation model for fermented mulberry leaf juice was developed using principal component analysis (PCA), identifying L. plantarum L10 as the optimal probiotic strain for fermentation.

Transcriptomic insights into the antidiabetic effects of mulberry leaf Fu brick tea in GK rats

Mulberry leaf polyphenols alleviate food allergy and moderate intestinal flora and lipid metabolism in allergic mice

Chemical control is an important component of integrated pest management for controlling insect and non-insect pests in mulberry plantations. Pesticides protect mulberry from pest damage. Under the scenario of climatic change and pest behaviour, mites and thrips often appear simultaneously during dry spells. Therefore, using a dual active chemical that combines both the insecticidal and acaricidal properties would be a cost-effective solution for managing both the pests with single application. A field experiment was conducted to evaluate the bio-efficacy of diafenthiuron 50 % WP against thrips and mites in mulberry and its impact on rearing and reproductive performance of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. Diafenthiuron 50 % WP was applied at 1g/L and pest populations were recorded one day before spraying and at 1st, 3rd, 5th, 8th and 15th days after spray (DAS), along with control. The control plots recorded significantly higher thrips and mite populations throughout the observation period. Application of diafenthiuron significantly reduced thrips populations (11.63 DBS, 0.46, 0.27, 0.20, 0.76 and 0.90 No./leaf during January–February; and 19.96 DBS, 0.63, 0.56, 0.47, 0.53, and 0.73 No./leaf during March–April up to 15 DAS) and mite populations (9.93 DBS, 0.30, 0.23, 0.20, 0.39, and 0.43 No./2 cm²; and 5.76 DBS, 0.28, 0.25, 0.20, 0.37, and 0.42 No./2 cm² during the respective cropping periods). Leaf area recorded at 45 and 60 days after pruning (DAP) was significantly higher in treated plants compared to the control. The highest mulberry leaf yield was obtained from diafenthiuron-treated plots (58,228.75 and 57,424.62 kg/ha/year) during the first and second crops, respectively. Being a dual-active molecule with both insecticidal and acaricidal properties, diafenthiuron provides a cost-effective and efficient single-application solution under changing climatic conditions where thrips and mites occur concurrently. Therefore, diafenthiuron 50 % WP can be recommended as a promising component of integrated pest management in mulberry, ensuring effective pest control while supporting sustainable sericulture practices.

This study utilized network pharmacology, bioinformatics, along with machine learning to investigate the multi-target synergistic anti-cancer mechanisms of three edible medicinal plants (EMPs)-mulberry leaf, lotus leaf, and sea buckthorn-against oral and esophageal squamous cell carcinomas (OSCC and ESCC). We identified potential active constituents and their targets through mining Traditional Chinese Medicine Systems Pharmacology (TCMSP) and Swiss Target Prediction databases. Concurrently, integration with differential expression profiles and co-expression modules identified crucial intersection targets between the EMPs and these two cancers. Subsequent machine learning algorithms and cross-cancer analysis consistently identified Matrix Metalloproteinase-1 (MMP1) as a critical hub gene. Its overexpression is closely associated with tumor invasion and metastasis. Molecular simulations revealed stable binding interactions between active constituents from three EMPs and hub proteins. Furthermore, research on immune cell infiltration suggested that the active components of three EMPs may impact the tumor immune microenvironment in both OSCC and ESCC through the regulation of pivotal gene expression. Collectively, this work systematically elucidates the molecular basis underlying the multi-target, multi-pathway synergistic anti-cancer effects of these EMPs, providing a theoretical foundation for developing natural drugs against these squamous cell carcinomas.

The silkworm Bombyx mori L. is a lepidopteran insect used as laboratory tool for various experiments. Being a domesticated insect, it has been reared mainly for the production of silk. The successful production of the silk not only governed by dynamic environmental factors but also affected by quality of mulberry leaf provided to silkworm. Hence, dietary nutrients are the most important factor which determine quality and quantity of silk production. An experiment was carried out to know the impact of mulberry leaf foliar spray with zinc oxide nanoparticle at varied concentrations viz., 1% ,1.5%, and 2% on protein contents as well as commercial parameters in the FC1XFC2 silkworm hybrid. The larvae reared on zinc oxide at 1.5% concentration registered higher protein contents in the haemolymph, fat body and silk gland over absolute and distilled water control. However, protein contents were relatively higher in the fat body when compared to haemolymph in all the treatments. Explicitly state that the 1.5% treatment yielded the best economic parameters such as larval weight, cocoon weight, shell weight, pupal weight, shell ratio, filament length, filament weight, denier, renditta and raw silk percentage.

Diabetes mellitus remains a major global health burden, and many patients do not achieve durable glycemic control despite modern pharmacotherapy. This narrative review synthesizes evidence on plant-derived strategies that may complement standard care, focusing on two clinically aligned domains: glucose-lowering medicinal plants and plant-based sugar substitutes that reduce dietary glycemic load. We summarize key mechanistic pathways, including inhibition of α-amylase/α-glucosidase, reduced intestinal glucose entry and absorption kinetics, glucose-dependent insulinotropic effects, improved insulin signaling, suppression of hepatic gluconeogenesis, and microbiota-linked effects. We critically appraise human evidence for selected botanicals (cinnamon, fenugreek, mulberry, gymnema, gynura, rosehip, and Jerusalem artichoke) and plant sweeteners (stevia and monk fruit). Overall, clinical effects are modest and heterogeneous; the most reproducible signals are observed for mulberry leaf in blunting postprandial glucose excursions, and for cinnamon, fenugreek, and gymnema, where meta-analyses suggest modest improvements in glycemic markers. Stevia and monk fruit are best supported as glycemically neutral sucrose substitutes, while inulin-type fructans show small-to-moderate benefits with sustained intake, limited by gastrointestinal tolerability at higher doses. Key gaps include a shortage of long-term randomized trials using standardized preparations and durable endpoints such as glycated hemoglobin. Plant-derived interventions are therefore best positioned as adjuncts within individualized, evidence-based glycemic management.