Mountain Spruce Forest Research Articles

Differential Responses of Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) Phenology and Density to a Changing Environment: A Study from Western Carpathians.

Environmental factors regulate the regeneration of mountain spruce forests, with drought, wind, and bark beetles causing the maximum damage. How these factors minimise spruce regeneration is still poorly understood. We conducted this study to investigate how the phenology and population dynamics of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), a dominant understory species of mountain spruce forests, are related to selected environmental factors that are modified by natural disturbances (bark beetle and wind). For this, we analysed bilberry at different sites affected by bark beetles and adjacent undisturbed forests in the Tatra National Park (TANAP) during the growing season (April-September) in 2016-2021, six years after the initial bark beetle attack. The observations were taken along an altitudinal gradient (1100-1250-1400 m a.s.l.) in two habitats (disturbed spruce forest-D, undisturbed spruce forest-U). We found that habitat and altitude influenced the onset of selected phenological phases, such as the earliest onset at low altitudes (1100 m a.s.l.) in disturbed forest stands and the latest at high altitudes (1400 m a.s.l.) in undisturbed stands. Although there were non-significant differences between habitats and altitudes, likely due to local climate conditions and the absence of a tree layer, these findings suggest that bilberry can partially thrive in disturbed forest stands. Despite temperature fluctuations during early spring, the longer growing season benefits its growth.

Soil Respiration after Bark Beetle Infestation along a Vertical Transect in Mountain Spruce Forest

In recent decades, large-scale forest disturbances such as windthrow and bark beetle infestations have significantly impacted Earth’s carbon balance and forest ecosystems. This impact alters soil respiration (SR), along with decreased gross primary productivity. To investigate the impact of bark beetle (Ips typographus L.) infestations in mountain spruce forests on SR, we measured SR at sites infested by bark beetles and adjacent undisturbed stands in the Tatra National Park (Slovakia) during the vegetation period (May–September) in 2016–2017 five to six years after the initial bark beetle attack. The measurements were taken along an altitudinal gradient (1100–1400 m a.s.l.). The highest rates of SR were observed during the summer months in both years (from June to August). However, yearly SR from May to September at infested sites showed significantly higher rates than uninfested ones in both years. SR showed a decreasing pattern with elevation gain in 2016 at infested sites, but this pattern was not observed in 2017. This study provides important insights into the impact of bark beetle infestations on SR and emphasizes the need for further research on the long-term effects of forest disturbances on carbon cycling. It also underscores the importance of determining the effect of different components of SR on the changed environment due to bark beetle attacks on mountain spruce forests.

Remarks on Geomatics Measurement Methods Focused on Forestry Inventory.

This contribution focuses on a comparison of modern geomatics technologies for the derivation of growth parameters in forest management. The present text summarizes the results of our measurements over the last five years. As a case project, a mountain spruce forest with planned forest logging was selected. In this locality, terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) and terrestrial and drone close-range photogrammetry were experimentally used, as was the use of PLS mobile technology (personal laser scanning) and ALS (aerial laser scanning). Results from the data joining, usability, and economics of all technologies for forest management and ecology were discussed. ALS is expensive for small areas and the results were not suitable for a detailed parameter derivation. The RPAS (remotely piloted aircraft systems, known as "drones") method of data acquisition combines the benefits of close-range and aerial photogrammetry. If the approximate height and number of the trees are known, one can approximately calculate the extracted cubage of wood mass before forest logging. The use of conventional terrestrial close-range photogrammetry and TLS proved to be inappropriate and practically unusable in our case, and also in standard forestry practice after consultation with forestry workers. On the other hand, the use of PLS is very simple and allows you to quickly define ordered parameters and further calculate, for example, the cubic volume of wood stockpiles. The results from our research into forestry show that drones can be used to estimate quantities (wood cubature) and inspect the health status of spruce forests, However, PLS seems, nowadays, to be the best solution in forest management for deriving forest parameters. Our results are mainly oriented to practice and in no way diminish the general research in this area.

Carbon and nutrient pools and fluxes in unmanaged mountain Norway spruce forests, and losses after natural tree dieback

Forest areas infected by insects are increasing in Europe and North America due to accelerating climate change. A 2000–2020 mass budget study on major elements (C, N, P, Ca, Mg, K) in the atmosphere-plant-soil-water systems of two unmanaged catchments enabled us to evaluate changes in pools and fluxes related to tree dieback and long-term accumulation/losses during the post-glacial period. A bark-beetle outbreak killed >75 % of all trees in a mature mountain spruce forest in one catchment and all dead biomass was left on site. A similar forest in a nearby catchment was only marginally affected. We observed that: (1) the long-term (millennial) C and N accumulation in soils averaged 10–22 and 0.5–1.1 kg ha−1 yr−1, respectively, while losses of Ca, Mg, and K from soils ranged from 0.1 to 2.6 kg ha−1 yr−1. (2) Only <0.8 % and <1.5 % of the respective total C and N fluxes entering the soil annually from vegetation were permanently stored in soils. (3) The post-disturbance decomposition of dead tree biomass reduced vegetation element pools from 27 % (C) to 73 % (P) between 2004 and 2019. (4) Tree dieback decreased net atmospheric element inputs to the impacted catchment, and increased the leaching of all elements and gaseous losses of C (∼2.3 t ha−1 yr−1) and N (∼14 kg ha−1 yr−1). The disturbed catchment became a net C source, but ∼50 % of the N released from dead biomass accumulated in soils. (5) Despite the severe forest disturbance, the dissolved losses of Ca and Mg represented 52–58 % of their leaching from intact stands during the peaking atmospheric acidification from 1970 to 1990. (6) Disturbance-related net leaching of P, Ca, Mg, and K were 4, 69, 16, and 114 kg ha−1, respectively, which represented 7–38 % of the losses potentially related to sanitary logging and subsequent removal of the aboveground tree biomass.

Long-term changes in soil composition in unmanaged central European mountain spruce forests after decreased acidic deposition and a bark beetle outbreak

We studied the effect of tree mortality on nutrient concentrations and pools in soils of two unmanaged mountain forest catchments (Plešné, PL; and Čertovo, CT; Czech Republic) recovering from acidification due to decreasing acidic atmospheric deposition since the late 1980s. Both catchments were situated at similar elevation, and before a bark beetle outbreak were covered by healthy mature Norway spruce (Picea abies) forests. However, differing bedrock [granite (PL) vs mica-schist and quartzite (CT)] resulted in lower concentrations of base cations (except for magnesium), but higher concentrations of aluminium and iron oxyhydroxides in the CT soils, enabling higher phosphorus (P) accumulation. Despite these differences, soils were similarly acidic, with pHH2O from 3.5 to 4.3 and cation exchange capacity (CEC) dominated by exchangeable protons (H+ex) and aluminium in both catchments in 2000. In the PL catchment, >75 % of mature spruce trees died after a bark beetle infestation between 2004 and 2008, and all dead biomass was left on site. Forest damage in the CT catchment was minor. Soil concentrations and pools of exchangeable calcium (Ca2+ex), magnesium (Mg2+ex), potassium (K+ex), and H+ex were tightly related to concentrations of organic carbon (C). Following the tree dieback in the PL catchment, we observed significant (p < 0.05) increases in (1) concentrations and pools of Ca2+ex, Mg2+ex, and K+ex, (2) base saturation (from 30 to ∼ 40 %), (3) CEC:C ratios (i.e., CEC of soil organic carbon), (4) pHH2O, (5) mineral P forms, and (6) total nitrogen (N) in the upper (O and A) soil horizons. Similar changes were less pronounced or negligible in the less impacted CT soils. The elevated litterfall after tree dieback, resulting in the increased input of base cations to forest floor and increased CEC of soil organic C, played a more important role in the decreasing acidity of the PL soils than the continuing decrease in acidic deposition.

Large old trees increase growth under shifting climatic constraints: Aligning tree longevity and individual growth dynamics in primary mountain spruce forests.

In a world of accelerating changes in environmental conditions driving tree growth, tradeoffs between tree growth rate and longevity could curtail the abundance of large old trees (LOTs), with potentially dire consequences for biodiversity and carbon storage. However, the influence of tree-level tradeoffs on forest structure at landscape scales will also depend on disturbances, which shape tree size and age distribution, and on whether LOTs can benefit from improved growing conditions due to climate warming. We analyzed temporal and spatial variation in radial growth patterns from ~5000 Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] H. Karst) live and dead trees from the Western Carpathian primary spruce forest stands. We applied mixed-linear modeling to quantify the importance of LOT growth histories and stand dynamics (i.e., competition and disturbance factors) on lifespan. Finally, we assessed regional synchronization in radial growth variability over the 20th century, and modeled the effects of stand dynamics and climate on LOTs recent growth trends. Tree age varied considerably among forest stands, implying an important role of disturbance as an age constraint. Slow juvenile growth and longer period of suppressed growth prolonged tree lifespan, while increasing disturbance severity and shorter time since last disturbance decreased it. The highest age was not achieved only by trees with continuous slow growth, but those with slow juvenile growth followed by subsequent growth releases. Growth trend analysis demonstrated an increase in absolute growth rates in response to climate warming, with late summer temperatures driving the recent growth trend. Contrary to our expectation that LOTs would eventually exhibit declining growth rates, the oldest LOTs (>400 years) continuously increase growth throughout their lives, indicating a high phenotypic plasticity of LOTs for increasing biomass, and a strong carbon sink role of primary spruce forests under rising temperatures, intensifying droughts, and increasing bark beetle outbreaks.

Bird response to forest disturbance size in mountain spruce forests in Central Europe

Although natural disturbances are likely to occur more frequently and be more severe in future as a result of climate change, we have little evidence concerning the effect of disturbance size and severity on species diversity. We aimed to compare effects of varying size and severity of natural disturbances on bird species composition in the non-intervention area of Šumava National Park, Czech Republic. For this purpose, we surveyed bird communities in 1) small- and 2) large-scale disturbance, 3) enclaves of live trees in large-scale disturbance areas, and 4) non-disturbed forests. Furthermore, we used habitat characteristics to identify structural factors affecting species composition of bird communities. Birds were sampled by the point count method during the 2021 breeding season and analysed using linear models. Additionally, we use principal component analysis (PCA) to characterize four defined disturbance classes using habitat characteristics. The most important habitat characteristics for bird communities are structural complexity, live tree density, and understorey cover. Small-scale disturbances increased structural complexity of a forest and had a generally positive effect on birds. Both small- and large-scale disturbances supported species nesting on the ground and shrub layer. In contrast, large-scale disturbances negatively affected canopy nesting and specialist species. This likely was due to a reduction of small-scale habitat heterogeneity with increasing disturbance severity. High-severity disturbance changes structurally rich forests to rather uniform, open-canopy habitats that are temporally unsuitable for closed-canopy birds. On the other hand, low-severity disturbance enhances large-scale habitat heterogeneity and maintains suitable habitat for species of closed-canopy forest, including some specialist species.

Windthrow and salvage logging alter β-diversity of multiple species groups in a mountain spruce forest

The response of biodiversity to natural and anthropogenic disturbances is a central topic in applied ecology. Climate change has altered forest disturbance regimes, resulting in global increases in stand-replacing disturbances, which are regularly followed by the removal of trees (salvage logging). Yet, the mid- to long-term effects of disturbances and salvage logging and the importance of species relative abundances on β-diversity remain unclear. We compared the β-diversity of 13 taxonomic groups in intact forest, unlogged windthrow, and salvage-logged windthrow plots 11 years after a windthrow. Hill numbers were used to quantify differences in between-treatment and within-treatment β-diversity for rare, common, and dominant species. We found that over a decade post-disturbance, both windthrow and salvage logging led to significant changes in between-treatment β-diversity of all 13 taxonomic groups. In addition, differences in between- and within-treatment β-diversity were more pronounced for rare species than for common and dominant ones. Windthrow led to the homogenization of communities of most saproxylic and half of the non-saproxylic studied groups. However, contrary to our expectation, salvage logging did not further increase community homogenization for any taxonomic group or Hill number. Moreover, salvage logging even reversed the community homogenization caused by the windthrow for saproxylic groups, leading to more heterogeneous communities. This effect was likely caused by the relatively high amount and diversity of deadwood found on the salvage-logged plots. Our study suggests that differences in within-treatment β-diversity between salvaged and unsalvaged windthrows tend to vanish over time, whereas differences between-treatments persisted, especially for saproxylic groups and rare species. This finding underlines the importance of preserving the characteristic communities in unsalvaged wind-disturbed forests in the mid- to long-term. Therefore, we recommend a management strategy that balances the amount of salvage-logged areas with that of set-aside areas.

Do the natural dynamics of West Carpathian forests affect the diversity of epiphytic lichens on Norway spruce?

Over the last decades the West Carpathian spruce and mixed forests with a share of Picea abies, have been undergoing intensified dynamic changes, determined by windstorms and European spruce bark beetle outbreaks. Those changes should have a decisive effect on the survivability of species and shifts in epiphytic lichen communities on this phorophyte. Research conducted in the Gorce Mts (West Carpathians, Poland) in 1993, 2013 and 2018, on the same 186 spruce trees at 33 sites, revealed an increase in the species diversity of lichen communities in a long-term perspective (25 years). At the same time, there was a decrease in the coverage of the dominant species. Such changes are a result of long-term tree composition processes: the natural thinning of upper mountain spruce forests and the increase of lower mountain forests density after a decrease in the share of Norway spruce. The former prefers photophilous epiphytes, and the latter leads to an increase in the share of shade-tolerant species. The analysis of lichen communities by means of the principal components analysis (PCA) method for all three study periods combined showed that long-term changes were the most significant for this lichen biota, and short-term changes had no considerable effect. The conducted Redundancy Analysis (RDA) revealed, that the forest plant association was a stronger factor affecting the lichen community composition and coverage than tree stand density and saplings density in each observation term. The changes taking place in stands under bark beetle and wind disturbances should be treated differently in different types of forest associations, but in both, they cause differentiation of niches used by more specialized species of epiphytic lichens.

Bird Response to Small- and Large-Scale Natural Disturbances in Mountain Spruce Forests in Central Europe

Bird Response to Small- and Large-Scale Natural Disturbances in Mountain Spruce Forests in Central Europe

Long-Term Changes in Soil Composition in Unmanaged Central European Mountain Spruce Forests after Decreased Acidic Deposition and a Bark Beetle Outbreak

Long-Term Changes in Soil Composition in Unmanaged Central European Mountain Spruce Forests after Decreased Acidic Deposition and a Bark Beetle Outbreak

Long-Term Changes in Soil Composition in Unmanaged Central European Mountain Spruce Forests after Decreased Acidic Deposition and a Bark Beetle Outbreak

Long-Term Changes in Soil Composition in Unmanaged Central European Mountain Spruce Forests after Decreased Acidic Deposition and a Bark Beetle Outbreak

Land Use Changes in the Alpine Tree Line Ecotone in the Hrubý Jeseník Mountains (Czech Republic)

Abstract Currently, we expected a altitudinal shift of forest vegetation upward under predicted climate changes impacts to European mountains ecosystems. In this context can be very interesting, that changes in alpine tree line ecotone in high European mountains were induced by human activities relatively often also in history. Probably one of the most important driver in land-use changes in high mountains was grazing, which significantly have influenced both mountain spruce forests and open alpine grasslands in central-Europe. This paper deals with historical changes of land-use in Hruby Jesenik Mountains (Czech Republic) during 19th and 20th centuries. Results revealed consequences of former grazing in mountain grasslands above alpine tree line ecotone in the frame of land-use analyses based on historical maps and other sources. These results, based on historical data, support our better understanding to current dynamic changes in European mountain landscapes.

Effect of mature spruce forest on canopy interception in subalpine conditions during three growing seasons

AbstractThe interception process in subalpine Norway spruce stands plays an important role in the distribution of throughfall. The natural mountain spruce forest where our measurements of throughfall and gross precipitation were carried out, is located on the tree line at an elevation of 1,420 m a.s.l. in the Western Tatra Mountains (Slovakia, Central Europe). This paper presents an evaluation of the interception process in a natural mature spruce stand during the growing season from May to October in 2018–2020. We also analyzed the daily precipitation events within each growing season and assigned to them individual synoptic types. The amount and distribution of precipitation during the growing season plays an important role in the precipitation-interception process, which confirming the evaluation of individual synoptic situations. During the monitored growing seasons, precipitation was normal (2018), sub-normal (2019) and above-normal (2020) in comparison with long-term precipitation (1988–2017). We recorded the highest precipitation in the normal and above-normal precipitation years during the north-eastern cyclonic synoptic situation (NEc). During these two periods, interception showed the lowest values in the dripping zone at the crown periphery, while in the precipitation sub-normal period (2019), the lowest interception was reached by the canopy gap. In the central crown zone near the stem, interception reached the highest value in each growing season. In the evaluated vegetation periods, interception reached values in the range of 19.6–24.1% of gross precipitation total in the canopy gap, 8.3–22.2% in the dripping zone at the crown periphery and 45.7–51.6% in the central crown zone near the stem. These regimes are expected to change in the Western Tatra Mts., as they have been affected by windstorms and insect outbreaks in recent decades. Under disturbance regimes, changes in interception as well as vegetation, at least for some period of time, are unavoidable.

The impact of natural disturbance dynamics on lichen diversity and composition in primary mountain spruce forests

AbstractAimNatural disturbances influence forest structure, successional dynamics and consequently, the distribution of species through time and space. We quantified the long‐term impacts of natural disturbances on lichen species richness and composition in primary mountain forests, with a particular focus on the occurrence of endangered species.LocationTen primary mountain spruce forest stands across five mountain chains of the Western Carpathians, a European hotspot of biodiversity.MethodsLiving trees, snags and downed logs were surveyed for epiphytic and epixylic lichens in 57 plots. Using reconstructed disturbance history, we tested how lichen species richness and composition was affected by the current forest structure and disturbance regimes in the past 250 years. We also examined differences in community composition among discrete microhabitats.ResultsDead standing trees as biological legacies of natural disturbances promoted lichen species richness and the occurrence of threatened species at the plot scale, suggesting improved growing conditions for rare and common lichens during the early stages of recovery post disturbance. However, high‐severity disturbances compromised plot‐scale species richness. Both species richness and the number of old‐growth specialists increased with time since disturbance (i.e., long‐term uninterrupted succession). No lichen species was strictly dependent on live trees as a habitat, but numerous species showed specificity to logs, standing objects or an admixture of tree species.ConclusionsLichen species richness was lower in regenerating, young and uniform plots compared with overmature and recently disturbed areas. Natural forest dynamics and its legacies are critical to the diversity and species composition of lichens. Spatio‐temporal consequences of natural dynamics require a sufficient area of protected forests for provisioning continual habitat variability at the landscape scale. Ongoing climatic changes may further accentuate this necessity. Hence, we highlighted the need to protect the last remaining primary forests to ensure the survival of regionally unique species pools of lichens.

Biochemical inhibition of acid phosphatase activity in two mountain spruce forest soils

The product inhibition of the 4-methylumbelliferyl phosphate (MUB-P) decay rate, a measure of potential acid phosphatase activity, has not been considered in most of the published kinetic studies. The aim of this study was to determine the type and strength of the product inhibition in order to better define reaction conditions at which the acid phosphatase activity assay produces unbiased results. The MUB-P decay rate was measured in the forest floor and topsoil organic horizons of two spruce forest catchments at different initial MUB-P and P-PO43− concentrations. The type and strength of the inhibition was analyzed by non-linear regression. We found that MUB-P decay was competitively inhibited by the P-PO43− but also by dissolved organic P. By using estimated kinetic parameters, we calculated an underestimation of potential acid phosphatase activity by up to ~ 20% at concentrations of added MUB-P as high as 300 µmol g−1 dry weight and an incubation time one hour due to background inorganic and organic P concentrations in range of units of µmol per gram of dry soil. We discuss approaches that can be used to minimize the underestimation and show that the previously defined recommendations might not be always sufficient to avoid the bias. Therefore, we recommend to analyze progress curves at a wide range of initial MUB-P concentrations using non-linear methods when the enzyme assay is optimized for a given soil. When changes in inorganic and/or organic P concentrations are expected, we further recommend measuring background inorganic and organic P concentrations.

The Impact of Local Climate Change on Radial Picea abies Growth: A Case Study in Natural Mountain Spruce Stand and Low-Lying Spruce Monoculture

Picea abies L. Karst is undeniably one of the most important tree species growing in Slovakia. In addition to natural mountain spruce forests, monocultures planted in lower areas are also quite common. In this article, we analyze the climate–growth response differences between these two types of spruce stands in the context of local climate change consequences. The study area representing natural mountain spruce forests is located under Osobitá Mt. (Tatra Mountains, Slovakia), while the analyzed low-lying planted monoculture is situated near Biely kríž (Malé Karpaty Mountains, Slovakia). Temporal variation of the dendroclimatological relationships was expressed by the running Spearman correlation coefficient during the observed period 1961–2018. The results showed crucial differences in the dendroclimatological relationships between the selected study areas. For the natural mountain spruce stand, consistent, weak, and positive correlations to the temperature variables were typical, with negative relationships to precipitation during the growing season. In this case, the negative impact of a recent temperature rise was limited. In contrast, the monoculture reacted to the temperature variation during the growing season with fluctuations, while in the case of precipitation, almost no dependence was found. Such incoherency may be a consequence of worsened health conditions, as well as insufficient resiliency to climate-driven stress. The importance of this paper is in its wide applicability, mainly in forestry.

What habitat parameters are important for the survival of ground nests in mountain forests? Recommendations for protection of Hazel Grouse Tetrastes bonasia based on an experiment with artificial nests

ABSTRACT Capsule Predation risk of artificial nests resembling Hazel Grouse Tetrastes bonasia nests was reduced in more diverse habitats and when roads and trails were closer. Aims To determine the importance of habitat structure and the presence of roads and hiking trails for the predation risk of artificial ground nests. Methods We investigated predation on artificial nests in mountain spruce forests with high tourist numbers in the Tatra Mountains, Southern Poland, in 2012–2014. Some 174 artificial ground nests resembling those of Hazel Grouse were set up and monitored. For 98 artificial nests, we compared environmental variables at two area scales, and the forest structure between predated and surviving nests. Results At the local scale (within 5 m) artificial nests were more likely to be predated at sites with lower occurrence of ferns and lying dead wood. At the wider spatial scale (within 100 m), nests were more likely to survive if near to roads and tourist trails. The occurrence of different tree species in the forest stand did not significantly influence predation rate of artificial nests. The mean daily nest predation rate was not high and varied between years (0.003–0.009). Conclusion Greater habitat diversity and the presence of roads and trails increased the survival of ground nests. These results are potentially important for conservation planning for threatened ground-nesting birds, such as the Tetraonidae.

Moderate- to High-Severity Disturbances Shaped the Structure of Primary Picea Abies (L.) Karst. Forest in the Southern Carpathians

Research Highlights: Past disturbances occurred naturally in primary forests in the Southern Carpathians. High- and moderate-severity disturbances shaped the present structure of these ecosystems, which regenerated successfully without forestry interventions. Background and Objectives: Windstorms and bark beetle outbreaks have recently affected large forest areas across the globe, causing concerns that these disturbances lie outside the range of natural variability of forest ecosystems. This often led to salvage logging inside protected areas, one of the main reasons for primary forest loss in Eastern Europe. Although more than two-thirds of temperate primary forests in Europe are located in the Carpathian region of Eastern Europe, knowledge about how natural disturbances shape the forest dynamics in this region is highly essential for future management decisions. Material and Methods: We established our study in a primary forest valley situated in the centre of the largest temperate primary forest landscape in Europe (Făgăraș Mountains). A dendrochronological investigation was carried out to reconstruct the natural disturbance history and relate it to the present forest structure. Results: The dendrochronological analysis revealed high temporal variability in the disturbance patterns both at the patch and stand level. Moderate severity disturbance events were most common (20–40% of canopy disturbed in 60% of the plots) but high severity events did also occur (33% of the plots). Regeneration was spruce-dominated and 71% of the seedlings were found on deadwood microsites. Conclusions: We conclude that the current structure of the studied area is a consequence of the past moderate-severity disturbances and sporadic high-severity events. The peak in disturbances (1880–1910) followed by reduced disturbance rates may contribute to a recent and future increase in disturbances in the Făgăraș Mts. Our findings show that these disturbance types are within the range of natural variability of mountain spruce forests in the Southern Carpathians and should not be a reason for salvage logging in primary forests from this area.

Quantifying Natural Disturbances Using a Large‐Scale Dendrochronological Reconstruction to Guide Forest Management

Quantitative estimates of historical disturbances are essential to guide forest management aimed at sustainability of ecosystem functions and biodiversity. We quantified past disturbance severity, patch size, and stand proportion disturbed in European primary mountain spruce forests using dendrochronology. We found that continuous gradients from low- to high-severity and small- to large-size disturbance events affected these forests. In addition to the importance of small disturbance events, moderate-scale and moderate-severity events were also common and they represented more than 50% of the total disturbed area. Our results provide rigorous baseline data for future ecological research, decisions within biodiversity conservation, and ecological silviculture. These photographs illustrate the article “Quantifying natural disturbances using a large-scale dendrochronological reconstruction to guide forest management” by Čada et al. published in Ecological Applications. https://doi.org/10.1002/eap.2189.