Execution Of Motor Skills Research Articles

Is It Bad to Control Too Much? The Effect of the Regulatory Focus on the Estimation of Short Time Intervals under Competitive Pressure

Choking under pressure is the phenomenon known in sport as errors in the automated motor skill execution that appear under circumstances that increase the importance of good or improved performance (Baumeister, 1984). Several theories claim that the reason for this phenomenon lies in control reinvestment, which provokes skill de-automatization. According to our hypothesis, control reinvestment appears due to fear of making a mistake, because an attempt to check “if the mistake is made or not” paradoxically provokes a mistake (Allakhverdov, 2000; Wegner, 1994). In our study we analyzed the influence of two factors: the “value” factor (regular vs valuable trials); and the “frame of the task” factor (bonus vs penalty). Participants played a computer game “Virtual Golf”, competing with each other. In a golf-like virtual scenario, a player had to learn to putt the ball to a hole displayed on the screen by pressing and holding a key for a certain period (2, 4, 6, 8 sec). The value of the target was manipulated during the competition session. In addition, one group was penalized for failing to hit the valuable target, whereas the other group received extra rewards for a hit. The generalized data of the experiment is in line with the theory of control reinvestment, as well as the idea that excessive control adversely affects performance of simple automated tasks. We observed choking under pressure when participants were putting balls in the closest targets (2 sec): participants made more errors putting the ball to valuable targets than to regular ones. The influence of task frame on the time taken for preparation for the trials was discovered: the “penalty” group prepared longer. We also found out that when more time was taken preparing for the shot, more errors were made.

The effect of a rhythmic movement intervention on selected bio-motor skills of academy rugby players in the Western Cape, South Africa

Rhythmic movement, also referred to as “dance”, involves the execution of different motor skills as well as the integration and sequencing of actions between limbs, timing and spatial precision. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate and compare the effect of a 16-week rhythmic movement intervention on flexibility, dynamic balance, agility, power and local muscular endurance of academy rugby players in the Western Cape, according to positional groups. Players (N = 54) (age 18.66 ± 0.81 years; height 1.76 ± 0.69 cm; weight 76.77 ± 10.69 kg), were randomly divided into a treatment-control [TCA] (n = 28) and a control-treatment [CTB] (n = 26) group. In this crossover experimental design, the interaction effect of the treatment order and the treatment time between the TCAand CTBgroup, was determined. Results indicated a statistically significant improvement (p < 0.05) in agility2(p = 0.06), power2(p = 0.05), local muscular endurance1(p = 0.01) & 3 (p = 0.01) and dynamic balance (p < 0.01). Likewise, forwards and backs also showed statistically significant improvements (p < 0.05) per positional groups. Therefore, a rhythmic movement intervention has the potential to improve rugby-specific bio-motor skills and furthermore, improve positional specific skills should it be designed with positional groups in mind. Future studies should investigate, not only the effect of rhythmic movement on improving specific rugby bio-motor skills, but the potential of its application as an alternative training method during off-season (or detraining phases) or as a recovery method.

Motor skill learning with impaired transfer by children with developmental coordination disorder

BackgroundDSM-5 criteria for developmental coordination disorder (DCD) emphasize deficits in the acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills. Previous studies of motor skill learning in DCD suggest deficits in the execution of motor skills but do not reveal a deficit in learning new skills, possibly because of the heterogeneity of motor deficits in DCD. AimIn light of the high prevalence of handwriting difficulties among children with DCD, the current study compared motor skill learning in 5–6-year-old children with DCD and their peers using a grapho-motor learning task that resembles a letter-writing practice. MethodsThirty-two boys, 16 with DCD, learned to produce a new “letter” formed by connecting three dots. Training, following-day consolidation, 1-week post-training retention, and far-transfer to a no-dot condition were tested. ResultsChildren with DCD exhibited rates of learning similar to those of their peers, but with overall poorer performance, replicating previous findings. Contrary to reports of intact skill transfer following a consolidation period in DCD, impaired transfer of the learned symbol was observed. ConclusionsThese findings may explain some of the motor difficulties experienced by children with DCD as well as contribute to the discussion on mechanisms involved in skill learning in these children.

Investigation of the effect of task-orientated rehabilitation program on motor skills of children with childhood cancer: a randomized-controlled trial.

Problems have been reported in the execution and development of motor skills and its treatment as a cause of cancer in children. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of the task-orientated rehabilitation program (ToRP) on motor skills of children with childhood cancer. Following the consort guideline, 93 children (49 males and 44 females) with pediatric cancer were randomized to either study (n = 52; 12.35 ± 3.43 years) or control (n = 41; 11.89 ± 3.56 years) groups. The study group received ToRP, and the control group received a home-based therapeutic strategies program for 20 sessions. Motor skill outcomes were assessed with Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Short Form (BOTMP-SF) by assessor who was blind to group allocation and interventions. The groups were homogenous in terms of demographic characteristics and motor skills. The study group showed a significant increase in both gross and fine motor skills (P values for all subtests: P < 0.001), whereas running speed, bilateral coordination, strength, response speed and visual motor control did not show significant improvement with the control group (P > 0.05). The ToRP appears to provide beneficial effects in improving motor skills at the early stages of rehabilitation for children with childhood cancer.

The Impact of Acute Stress Physiology on Skilled Motor Performance: Implications for Policing.

Investigations of police performance during acutely stressful situations have primarily focused on higher-order cognitive processes like attention, affect or emotion and decision-making, and the behavioral outcomes of these processes, such as errors in lethal force. However, behavioral outcomes in policing must be understood as a combination of both higher-order processes and the physical execution of motor skills. What is missing from extant police literature is an understanding of how physiological responses to acute stress contribute to observed decrements in skilled motor performance at the neuromuscular level. The purpose of the current paper is to fill this knowledge gap in the following ways: (1) review scientific evidence for the physiological (i.e., autonomic, endocrine, and musculoskeletal) responses to acutely stressful exposures and their influence on skilled motor performance in both human and animal models, (2) review applied evidence on occupationally relevant stress physiology and observed motor decrements in performance among police, and (3) discuss the implications of stress physiology for police training and identify future directions for applied researchers. Evidence is compelling that skill decay is inevitable under high levels of acute stress; however, robust evidence-informed training practices can help mitigate this decay and contribute to officer safety.

Coach Rating Combined With Small-Sided Games Provides Further Insight Into Mental Toughness in Sport.

Literature indicates that mental toughness contributes to successful performance when faced with challenge. This study used an exemplar sport of Australian Rules football to investigate whether skilled performance thrived across increased challenge in small-sided games. Higher (n = 14) and lower (n = 17) skilled Australian footballers were recruited. First, coaches rated participants’ mental toughness (MTC) using the Mental Toughness Index. Second, participants competed in small-sided games where challenge was manipulated by varying the attacker to defender ratio to create lower and higher pressure scenarios. Decision-making, motor skill execution, and a combined total were measured. MTC rating was higher for higher skilled players. Total score of higher skilled players was significantly superior to lower skilled players in higher and lower pressure scenarios (p = 0.003). A “pressure differential score,” calculated to determine whether participants maintained performance across increased challenge, indicated a significant decrease in performance (total score) from lower to higher pressure scenarios for lower skilled (p = 0.011), but not for higher skilled (p = 0.060) players. Furthermore, MTC scores were predictive of high pressure scenario total scores (p = 0.011). Findings suggest higher levels of mental toughness may contribute to maintain performance across the increased challenge of pressure within small-sided games. Practitioners can subjectively rate athlete mental toughness and then structure small-sided games to objectively measure performance under pressure scenarios. This provides an interdisciplinary approach to assess and train psychomotor skill.

Content and function of thought in motor skill execution

Content and function of thought in motor skill execution

Fluid intelligence and working memory support dissociable aspects of learning by physical but not observational practice

Humans have a remarkable ability to learn by watching others, whether learning to tie an elaborate knot or play the piano. However, the mechanisms that translate visual input into motor skill execution remain unclear. It has been proposed that common cognitive and neural mechanisms underpin learning motor skills by physical and observational practice. Here we provide a novel test of the common mechanism hypothesis by testing the extent to which certain individual differences predict observational as well as physical learning. Participants (N = 92 per group) either physically practiced a five-element key-press sequence or watched videos of similar sequences before physically performing trained and untrained sequences in a test phase. We also measured cognitive abilities across participants that have previously been associated with rates of learning, including working memory and fluid intelligence. Our findings show that individual differences in working memory and fluid intelligence predict improvements in dissociable aspects of motor learning following physical practice, but not observational practice. Working memory predicts general learning gains from pre- to post-test that generalise to untrained sequences, whereas fluid intelligence predicts sequence-specific gains that are tied to trained sequences. However, neither working memory nor fluid intelligence predict training gains following observational learning. Therefore, these results suggest limits to the shared mechanism hypothesis of physical and observational learning. Indeed, models of observational learning need updating to reflect the extent to which such learning is based on shared as well as distinct processes compared to physical learning. We suggest that such differences could reflect the more intentional nature of learning during physical compared to observational practice, which relies to a greater extent on higher-order cognitive resources such as working memory and fluid intelligence.

Movement Skill Assessment in Children: Overview and Recommendations for Research and Practice

Numerous instruments have been developed to assess children’s movement skills. The majority of these instruments were based on neuromaturational mechanisms underlying the execution of motor skills. Few tools have integrated current perspectives of motor development that focus on the interaction between children and the world in which they live. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of frequently used movement skill assessment tests and to make suggestions about the need to consider multiple, interacting systems when evaluating children’s motor performance. Recent reviews on movement skill assessments for children have demonstrated sound psychometric properties for most of the commonly used instruments including the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Performance-2, and the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. This paper raises important questions regarding the existing approach to movement skill assessment and demonstrates the need for a paradigm shift in the field. We recommend that movement skill assessment procedures should provide considerable attention to all systems (individual, task, and environmental attributes) that might contribute to variations in children’s movement behavior. We propose that revised versions of existing instruments and new ones should be based on dynamic systems theory to help assess the factors that may influence the child’s movement behavior. Integration of technology into the development of field-based assessment tools is also recommended.

Oculomotor behavior and the level of repetition in motor practice: Effects on pupil dilation, eyeblinks and visual scanning

The benefits of less repetitive practice in motor learning have been explained by the increased demand for memory processes during the execution of motor skills. Recently, a new perspective associating increased demand for perception with less repetitive practice has also been proposed. Augmented information gathering and visual scanning characterize this higher perceptual demand. To extend our knowledge about mental effort and perceptual differences in practice organization, the association between oculomotor behavior and type of practice was investigated. We required participants to press four keys with different absolute and relative timing goals during the acquisition phase. An eye-tracker captured visual scanning of the skill’s absolute and relative information displayed on the screen. Participants were tested 24 h after acquisition by a retention and transfer test. A higher level of both pupil dilation and amount of eyeblinks indicated an increased mental effort in less repetitive practice compared to more repetitive practice. Visual scanning of the skill’s relative and absolute information was specific to the type of practice. The findings indicate many differences in oculomotor behavior associated with the practice schedule.

Assessment of the performance of novice futsal players in the execution of futsal-specific motor skills

PurposeTo compare the performance in the execution of specific motor skills among novice futsal players in 3 competitive categories (U-7, U-9, and U-11) and to compare their performance in specific motor skills during the offensive and defensive phases of the game.MethodsTen specific motor skills were investigated, including 6 offensive actions and 4 defensive actions, in 49 futsal players aged 6–11 years. Technical performance was analysed in terms of the number of actions, the effectiveness of the action (successful or unsuccessful), and where the action occurred (offensive or defensive midfield). One-way ANOVA was used with the Tukey test, when appropriate, or Student’s t-test, with a significance level of 5%.ResultsPlayers in the older categories were more effective defensively than those in the younger categories (F&lt;sub&gt;2,46&lt;/sub&gt; = 6.04, p &lt; 0.01, η&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.21). The two older groups had an approximately two- and three-fold greater chance, respectively, of executing successful defensive technical actions (&lt;i&gt;OR&lt;/i&gt; = 1.82, &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.05; &lt;i&gt;OR&lt;/i&gt; = 2.83, &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01). Furthermore, the players were more technically effective in the offensive phase of the game than in the defensive phase (&lt;i&gt;M&lt;/i&gt; = 41.35, &lt;i&gt;SD&lt;/i&gt; = 21.53 and &lt;i&gt;M&lt;/i&gt; = 16.47, &lt;i&gt;SD&lt;/i&gt; = 7.90, respectively; t&lt;sub&gt;96&lt;/sub&gt; = 7.60, &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; &lt; 0.01, &lt;i&gt;d&lt;/i&gt; = 1.69).ConclusionsPlayers in older competitive categories were more effective, and players were more effective offensively than defensively.

Small-sided games can discriminate perceptual-cognitive-motor capability and predict disposal efficiency in match performance of skilled Australian footballers

ABSTRACTThis study determined if small-sided games could discriminate perceptual-cognitive-motor skill in Australian Rules Footballers. Higher skilled Western Australian Football League (WAFL) (n = 17) and lesser skilled Amateur (n = 23) players were recruited. Participants played three small-sided games of three minutes. Each disposal was scored for decision-making and motor skill execution, with these scores combined for a total score. Mann-Whitney U tests indicated significantly superior mean decision-making by higher skilled (Median = 2.90, Range = 0.30) over lesser skilled (Median = 2.80, Range = 0.73) (p = .012) players. Execution score was not significantly different between groups. Linear mixed model analysis found higher skilled players (M = 5.32, SD = 1.19) scored significantly higher than lower skilled players (M = 4.90, SD = 1.52) on total score (p = .009). Large effect sizes were found for decision-making and total score relative to games and position played in WAFL players. High agreement of scoring was observed for an elite (inter-rater) and a novice (intra-rater) coaches. Linear mixed model analysis indicated mean total scores of WAFL players significantly predicted disposal efficiency in match performance (p = .011). Small-sided games can be easily implemented to identify talented players and assess perceptual-cognitive-motor skill.

Chasing the zone: Reduced beta power predicts baseball batting performance

Mental state prior to sports skill execution is related to subsequent performance. For example, relationships between pre-performance electroencephalogram (EEG) power and subsequent movement outcomes in golf putting, pistol shooting, and basketball free throw shooting have been previously reported. With that said, the existing body of research examining the pre-performance EEG – performance relationship has been focused on the execution of internally as opposed to externally-paced motor skills. Given that the execution of internally and externally-paced movements are dependent on different neural pathways, in the present study we examined whether or not pre-performance EEG power predicted ensuing performance of an externally-paced motor skill – baseball batting. Sixty-seven baseball players had EEG data recorded for 120 s prior to batting practice. Performance was assessed by three expert coaches and the accuracy of coach performance ratings was verified via Generalizability Theory. An analysis of our data revealed an inverse relationship between frontal EEG power in the beta range and subsequent batting performance - reduced beta power was associated with better batting performance whereas increased beta power was associated with worse batting performance. Our results are in line with prior research that has demonstrated a relationship between increased EEG power in the beta range and the subsequent commitment of motor errors in addition to the aforementioned work examining pre-performance EEG and the execution of internally-paced motor skills.

Exercise-Induced Fatigue Impairs Bidirectional Corticostriatal Synaptic Plasticity

Exercise-induced fatigue (EF) is a ubiquitous phenomenon in sports competition and training. It can impair athletes’ motor skill execution and cognition. Corticostriatal synaptic plasticity is considered to be the cellular mechanism of movement control and motor learning. However, the effect of EF on corticostriatal synaptic plasticity remains elusive. In the present study, using field excitatory postsynaptic potential recording, we found that the corticostriatal long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) were both impaired in EF mice. To further investigate the cellular mechanisms underlying the impaired synaptic plasticity in corticostriatal pathway, whole-cell patch clamp recordings were carried out on striatal medium spiny neurons (MSNs). MSNs in EF mice exhibited increased spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current (sEPSC) frequency and decreased paired-pulse ratio (PPR), while with normal basic electrophysiological properties and normal sEPSC amplitude. Furthermore, the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)/α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate (AMPA) ratio of MSNs was reduced in EF mice. These results suggest that the enhanced presynaptic glutamate (Glu) release and downregulated postsynaptic NMDA receptor function lead to the impaired corticostriatal plasticity in EF mice. Taken together, our findings for the first time show that the bidirectional corticostriatal synaptic plasticity is impaired after EF, and suggest that the aberrant corticostriatal synaptic plasticity may be involved in the production and/or maintenance of EF.

Monoaminergic Modulation of Motor Cortex Function.

Elaboration of appropriate responses to behavioral situations rests on the ability of selecting appropriate motor outcomes in accordance to specific environmental inputs. To this end, the primary motor cortex (M1) is a key structure for the control of voluntary movements and motor skills learning. Subcortical loops regulate the activity of the motor cortex and thus contribute to the selection of appropriate motor plans. Monoamines are key mediators of arousal, attention and motivation. Their firing pattern enables a direct encoding of different states thus promoting or repressing the selection of actions adapted to the behavioral context. Monoaminergic modulation of motor systems has been extensively studied in subcortical circuits. Despite evidence of converging projections of multiple neurotransmitters systems in the motor cortex pointing to a direct modulation of local circuits, their contribution to the execution and learning of motor skills is still poorly understood. Monoaminergic dysregulation leads to impaired plasticity and motor function in several neurological and psychiatric conditions, thus it is critical to better understand how monoamines modulate neural activity in the motor cortex. This review aims to provide an update of our current understanding on the monoaminergic modulation of the motor cortex with an emphasis on motor skill learning and execution under physiological conditions.

Appropriateness of different pedagogical approaches to road safety education for children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)

BackgroundIn 2016, 29% of pedestrians killed or seriously injured on the roads in Great Britain were under 15 years of age. Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), a chronic disorder affecting the acquisition and execution of motor skills, may be more vulnerable at the roadside than typically developing (TD) children. Current methods used to teach road safety are typically knowledge-based and do not necessarily improve behaviour in real traffic situations. Virtual reality road crossing tasks may be a viable alternative. Aims/MethodsThe present study aimed to test the road crossing accuracy of children with and without DCD in virtual reality tasks that varied the viewpoint to simulate the teaching methods currently used in road safety educational programmes. Twenty-one children with DCD and twenty-one age and gender matched TD peers were required to locate the safest road crossing sites in two conditions: allocentric (aerial viewpoint) and egocentric (first-person viewpoint). Procedures/OutcomesAll children completed both conditions and were required to navigate either themselves or an avatar across the road using the safest crossing route. The primary outcome was accuracy defined as the number of trials, out of 10, on which the child successfully identified and used the safest crossing route. Results/ConclusionsChildren with DCD performed equally poorly in both conditions, while TD children were significantly more accurate in the egocentric condition. This difference cannot be explained by self-reported prior road crossing education, practice or confidence. ImplicationsWhile TD children may benefit from the development of an egocentric virtual reality road crossing task, multimodal methods may be needed to effectively teach road safety to children with DCD.

The Role of Variability in Motor Learning.

Trial-to-trial variability in the execution of movements and motor skills is ubiquitous and widely considered to be the unwanted consequence of a noisy nervous system. However, recent studies have suggested that motor variability may also be a feature of how sensorimotor systems operate and learn. This view, rooted in reinforcement learning theory, equates motor variability with purposeful exploration of motor space that, when coupled with reinforcement, can drive motor learning. Here we review studies that explore the relationship between motor variability and motor learning in both humans and animal models. We discuss neural circuit mechanisms that underlie the generation and regulation of motor variability and consider the implications that this work has for our understanding of motor learning.

Revealing the decision-making of dribbling in the sport of futsal

ABSTRACTThis study aimed to investigate why futsal players decide to dribble. For this purpose, we analysed 396 trials comprising the dribbles (n = 132), passes (n = 131) or shots (n = 133), performed by 70 male futsal players. Passing and shooting angles, and interpersonal distance, including their rates of change (velocity and variability), were regarded as measures of interpersonal coordination tendency and a comparison was made among dribbling, passing and shooting situations. In addition, the variables identified as constraints on deciding to dribble were analysed in relation to age categories, dribbling outcomes and futsal court zone. Results revealed that passing and shooting angles, and interpersonal distance showed higher variability in dribbling than in passing and shooting situations. The findings allowed us to conclude that decision-making on dribbling was influenced by the variabilities of passing angles as well as shooting and interpersonal distance, and that success in dribbling was affected by the variability of interpersonal distance. Such variabilities were interpreted concerning their meaning of risk and/or uncertainty in the execution of motor skills.

A novel computational model to probe visual search deficits during motor performance.

Visual search has traditionally been studied in cognitive and perceptual paradigms, but little is known about how it contributes to visuomotor performance. We have developed a novel computational model to examine how three underlying processes of visual search (spatial planning, working memory, and peripheral visual processing) contribute to visual search during a visuomotor task. We show that deficits integrating spatial planning and working memory underlie abnormal performance in stroke survivors with frontoparietal damage.

Skill and motor control: intelligence all the way down

When reflecting on the nature of skilled action, it is easy to fall into familiar dichotomies such that one construes the flexibility and intelligence of skill at the level of intentional states while characterizing the automatic motor processes that constitute motor skill execution as learned but fixed, invariant, bottom-up, brute-causal responses. In this essay, I will argue that this picture of skilled, automatic, motor processes is overly simplistic. Specifically, I will argue that an adequate account of the learned motor routines that constitute embodied skills cannot be given in a purely bottom-up, brute-causal fashion. Rather, motor control is intelligent all the way down. To establish this, I will first review two recent accounts of skill, Stanley and Krakauer (Front Hum Neurosci, 2013. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.0050) and Papineau (R Inst Philos Suppl 73:175–196, 2013), which characterize the automatic motor control responsible for the fine-grained movements constitutive of motor skill as brute, low-level phenomena. I will then isolate five key features that should apply to skilled motor control, if these accounts are correct. Together, the accounts posit that motor control is: (1) ballistic, (2) invariant, (3) independent of general action trajectories, (4) Insensitive to semantic content, and (5) independent of personal-level intentions. In the final section of this paper, I will appeal to optimal control theory for empirical evidence to challenge the commitment to skilled action as qualified by the above features.