The effect of the overload principle in motor skill acquisition is unclear. Hence, the present study examined the effect of the overload principle in general, and in particular how the overload principle can be used to increase transferability to nontrained balance tasks with a high level of similarity at different levels of difficulty. A total of 24 participants were randomly assigned to two training groups: (1) low-difficulty training group and (2) high-difficulty training group. Both training groups completed five training sessions consisting of 25 trials over three weeks and only the level of difficulty of the balance board differed. Both the low and high-difficulty training groups had a significant improvement in balance performance in the specific trained conditions, which supports the specificity principle. Most interestingly, only the high-difficulty training group showed significant positive transfer to balance tasks with lower levels of difficulty. The low difficulty training group did not show significant positive transfer to balance tasks with higher levels of difficulty. These findings support the effect of the overload principle. In conclusion, the present findings demonstrate the superior effect of task-specific balance training, and, most interestingly, the study revealed that training with overload at higher levels of difficulty enhances transferability to similar tasks performed at lower difficulty levels.

Is Social Media Use a Blessing or Cure for Motor Function and Skill Acquisition? An Opinion Paper.

ABSTRACT This study employed a bibliometric approach to examine the intellectual structure, emerging themes, and future directions of research on digital technology integration in physical education (PE). Using bibliographic coupling and co-occurrence analyses of 300 publications from Web of Science, six intellectual clusters were identified: pedagogical reform, motivation and gamification, immersive technologies, socio-critical perspectives, data-driven practice, and teacher professional development. Thematic evolution reveals growing interest in virtual reality or augmented reality for motor skill acquisition, gamified engagement strategies, data-informed assessment frameworks, and rising attention to equity, ethics, and teacher readiness. Findings indicate a paradigm shift toward systemic and holistic digitalization of PE, where technology is positioned as integral to curriculum, pedagogy, and assessment. The study concludes by proposing interdisciplinary collaboration and mixed-method, longitudinal designs to ensure that digital innovations remain pedagogically meaningful, equitable, and scalable across diverse educational contexts.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental motor disorder characterised by marked difficulties in the acquisition and execution of motor skills, substantially affecting daily activities and quality of life. Martial arts (MAs), due to their multi-skilled nature, have been studied as possible intervention strategies to improve motor competence and functionality in children with DCD. The present systematic review aimed to explore the effects of MA practice in children and adolescents with DCD, identifying the benefits, methodological characteristics and practical implications of existing interventions. The search was conducted in the PubMed, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases, following the PRISMA 2021 guidelines, using the keywords (developmental coordination disorder OR DCD OR dyspraxia) AND (karate OR judo OR taekwondo OR aikido OR martial art) AND (child OR preschool). Experimental and quasi-experimental studies that applied MA programmes to children and adolescents (≤18 years) with a confirmed diagnosis of DCD were included. Of the 1834 identified records, five studies met the inclusion criteria. The MA modalities examined were karate, tai chi, and taekwondo. Across studies (n per study = 16-145), MA-based programmes consistently yielded significant pre- to post-intervention improvements in overall motor competence (MC), balance, muscle strength, and coordination; one study reported maintenance of coordination gains at 3-month follow-up. Methodological quality assessed with the Downs and Black checklist ranged from fair to good (scores = 18-22). No adverse events were reported. Based on the included studies, MA interventions demonstrate potential as an effective motor intervention approach for children and adolescents with DCD. Findings consistently indicated significant improvements in motor competence, balance, muscle strength, and coordination, with additional benefits observed in cognitive and psychosocial domains and no reported adverse effects.

Background and Purpose Instructional communication barriers remain a significant challenge in combat sport training for Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing (D/HH) athletes. In martial arts such as Tarung Derajat, foundational techniques at the Kurata I level require precise sequencing, timing, and technical accuracy. Conventional training methods often rely on rapid verbal explanations, which may limit accessibility and hinder motor skill acquisition among Deaf trainees. Integrating structured visual modeling with Bahasa Isyarat Indonesia (BISINDO) offers a potential solution to enhance instructional clarity and inclusivity. This study aimed to develop and validate a BISINDO-integrated video tutorial for foundational Kurata I techniques in Tarung Derajat using a systematic Research and Development (R&D) approach. Materials and Methods This study employed an R&D design adapted from the Borg and Gall model, consisting of nine stages: needs analysis, design, development, expert validation, revision, small-scale trial, revision, large-scale trial, and finalization. The product developed was a segmented video tutorial incorporating slow-motion demonstrations and synchronized BISINDO interpretation. Validation involved three experts (media, Tarung Derajat technical content, and BISINDO language). User trials were conducted with Deaf Kurata I trainees (small-scale n=2; large-scale n=3). Data were collected using Likert-scale expert validation questionnaires and Guttman-scale user response instruments. Feasibility was analyzed descriptively using percentage-based criteria. Results Media validation improved from 80% (Good) in the initial stage to 90.34% (Very Good) after revision. Technical content validation achieved 90% in the small-scale phase and 96% in the large-scale phase (Very Good). BISINDO linguistic validation reached 98% and 100%, respectively (Very Good). User trials indicated 100% positive responses in both small- and large-scale testing, confirming high practicality and clarity of the instructional media. Conclusions The BISINDO-integrated video tutorial demonstrated very high feasibility across instructional design, technical accuracy, and linguistic accessibility domains. The integration of structured visual modeling and synchronized sign language provides an inclusive and pedagogically sound approach to martial arts training for Deaf athletes. The product is recommended as a supplementary instructional resource and as a model for developing accessible multimedia training media in combat sports.

Motor skill acquisition is crucial for physical, cognitive, and social development, especially among students with hearing impairments who rely heavily on visual and kinesthetic cues. This study examined the comparative effects of autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire coaching styles on motor skill acquisition in hearing-impaired male students enrolled in the Diploma in Special Education at Government Degree College of Special Education, Dera Ghazi Khan. A quasi-experimental pre-test & post-test design was employed with 30 purposively selected participants, divided equally into three coaching groups. A standardized motor skill test battery measured performance accuracy, coordination, and technique before and after a 6-week intervention.Descriptive statistics indicated that all groups improved significantly (p < 0.001), with the democratic group achieving the highest gain (Mean = 25.60), followed by autocratic (Mean = 15.30) and laissez-faire (Mean = 9.20). One-way ANOVA confirmed significant differences in post-test scores among the groups (F = 45.62, p < 0.001). Post-hoc Tukey HSD tests revealed that democratic coaching outperformed both autocratic and laissez-faire styles, while autocratic was more effective than laissez-faire.The findings suggest that democratic coaching, which combines structured guidance with active learner participation, is most effective for enhancing motor skills in hearing-impaired students. Autocratic coaching supports immediate skill improvement but limits autonomy, whereas laissez-faire provides minimal gains. These results highlight the importance of inclusive and participatory teaching strategies. Future research should explore larger samples, long-term retention, hybrid coaching approaches, broader age ranges, and motivational outcomes to optimize adapted physical education.

Repeated beta transcranial alternating current stimulation disrupts consolidation and retention of motor sequence learning.

Low mastery of table tennis forehand and backhand strokes among university students is often linked to instruction that is insufficiently structured and does not match learners’ skill levels. Task-progression-based learning is designed to sequence practice tasks from simple to complex, enabling gradual and systematic motor-skill acquisition. This study examined the effectiveness of a task-progression learning model in improving students’ forehand and backhand stroke skills in table tennis. A quantitative quasi-experimental design was employed, involving an experimental group receiving task-progression instruction and a control group receiving conventional instruction. Skill performance was measured using standardized forehand and backhand stroke tests administered before and after the intervention. Inferential statistics (including prerequisite tests and a t-test) were used to compare skill gains between groups. Results indicated that both groups improved, but the experimental group achieved substantially higher post-test performance and improvement. The experimental group’s mean score increased from 62.45 to 82.30 (gain = 19.85), while the control group increased from 63.10 to 71.25 (gain = 8.15), with the difference in gains statistically significant. These findings suggest that progressively sequenced practice tasks facilitate more effective learning of fundamental table tennis techniques and support incremental improvement in movement quality. The study concludes that task-progression-based learning is effective and recommended for table tennis instruction in higher education. Future research should test longer interventions, examine retention and transfer to game performance, and apply task progression to other sport skills and learner profiles.

Aim/Objective To investigate the impact of Virtual Reality (VR)-aided training on balance ability, energy expenditure, and tennis learning outcomes in children with moderate intellectual disabilities. Materials and Methods Participants were assigned to either a VR-aided training group (experimental) or a traditional training group (control). Balance ability and energy expenditure were assessed using intelligent algorithms, while a custom questionnaire measured tennis learning interest, performance, and motivation. Pre- and post-intervention evaluations included dynamic and static balance, aerobic endurance, broad jump, and vital capacity. Conclusion VR-aided training significantly improved dynamic and static balance, aerobic endurance, and tennis skills, with the experimental group scoring on average two points higher than the control group. Energy expenditure decreased, with a maximum reduction of 60.52 kcal. No significant improvements were observed in the broad jump or vital capacity. Impact These findings highlight VR as an effective, engaging, and energy-efficient tool for enhancing motor control, aerobic fitness, and skill acquisition in physical education programs for children with moderate intellectual disabilities.

The effect of dopamine D2-like receptor blockade on human motor performance and skill acquisition.

Vision is fundamental to the acquisition of motor, cognitive, and social skills, playing a crucial role in typical development. Early visual impairments are associated with various neurodevelopmental conditions, including Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The (Brain-specific serine/threonine-protein kinase 2, BRSK2) gene has been identified as a high-risk gene for ASD. This study aims to investigate the role of brsk2 in retinal photoreceptor development and visual function in zebrafish. Using behavioral assays, histological analysis, and transcriptomic profiling, we assessed the impact of brsk2 deletion on retinal structure and function. The results showed that brsk2ab−/− zebrafish larvae exhibited significantly enhanced light perception compared to wild-type (WT) controls. Structural analysis of the retina revealed disruptions in the layered organization, along with up-regulated rhodopsin expression in retinal cells. Additionally, transcriptomic analysis indicated that key opsins and genes involved in visual development and phototransduction pathways were markedly up-regulated following brsk2 deletion. This research highlights the importance of brsk2 in early retinal circuit development and its potential implications for understanding sensory processing deficits in neurodevelopmental disorders. By linking BRSK2 to specific sensory phenotypes, this study addresses a critical gap in knowledge regarding the mechanisms underlying sensory abnormalities in ASD and related conditions.

Infants' time spent in different body positions varies substantially within a day: lying supine on their backs, crawling or playing while prone on their bellies, sitting on the floor or in seating devices, standing or walking upright on two feet, and held by an adult. Infants may spend long periods in one position, such as sitting in a highchair, followed by periods of switching positions (e.g., prone and upright), such as during play. Speech input has been linked with infants' placement and motor development. Here, we extend past work to ask whether adults speak more frequently depending on infants' time spent in different body positions throughout the day. We gathered home recordings from 64 infants in two age groups, 4-7 months and 11-14 months, using movement sensors to measure body position and a LENA audio recorder to estimate adult word count. Data were analyzed in 10-min bins throughout the day to determine whether within-day differences in infants' time spent in each position were associated with the frequency of adult's speech. Indeed, increased time spent supine and prone predicted fewer adult words, whereas increased time sitting and held predicted increases in word count. Upright was age dependent, with more time spent upright predicting an increase in word count for younger infants, but a decrease for older infants. These findings reveal the importance of considering infants' body position in understanding speech input and subsequent language development. SUMMARY: Tested how infants' body positions (supine, prone, sitting, upright, and held) relate to adults' speech input in naturalistic home settings. Machine-learning algorithms predicted infants' body positions from motion sensors embedded in custom leggings. Adults spoke relatively more when holding infants and while infants sat, but less frequently when infants were prone and supine. Results provide partial support for theorized links between motor skill acquisition and language development.

IntroductionObservational learning plays a critical role in motor skill acquisition. Investigating the neural substrates involved in this process is of great significance for optimizing teaching methodologies and advancing brain-computer interface technologies.MethodsAn experimental design combining functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) and behavioral analysis was employed. The fNIRS protocol utilized a 2×3×2 factorial design.ResultsBehavioral findings: The RSVD group (Regular-Speed Videos Demonstration) exhibited significantly higher movement accuracy scores compared to the SMVD group (Slow-Motion Video Demonstration). Cognitive load assessments revealed that the SMVD group experienced significantly higher cognitive load than the RSVD group.fNIRS findingsDuring the observational learning phase, significant activation increases were observed in the Frontal Eye Fields (FEF, BA8) and the Pre-Motor/Superior Motor Cortex (SMA/Pre-SMA, BA6) compared to the demonstration phase. The Frontopolar Cortex (FPC) showed reduced activation during the observational learning phase relative to the demonstration phase. In the Right Frontopolar Area (RFPC, BA10), activation was significantly greater in the simple task condition compared to moderate and difficult task conditions.ConclusionIn the early stages of instruction, SMVD may impede the effectiveness of observational learning for Tai Chi. Both the action demonstration and observational learning phases demand greater neural resources and broader brain network connectivity, requiring coordinated engagement of cognitive and motor systems.

Muscle synergies, defined as coordinated activations of muscle groups, are thought to simplify motor control by reducing dimensionality and providing a repertoire of adaptable motor solutions. While prior research has investigated synergy adaptation in clinical populations and healthy individuals, most evidence stems from constrained or low-degree-of-freedom (DOF) tasks. A critical gap remains in understanding how synergies are refined in high-DOF, performance-driven contexts that demand full-body coordination. To address this, we examined neuromuscular strategies in professional and amateur golfers performing a 7-iron swing. Electromyographic recordings from 27 muscles, along with kinematic and kinetic data, were analyzed to identify kinematic predictors of clubhead speed and their associated muscle activation patterns. Muscle synergy and clustering analysis of these key muscles revealed two group-invariant synergies, pelvis rotation and plantarflexion, whose peak activation timings were significantly correlated with clubhead speed. A significant subject-specific synergy and a significant amateur-exclusive synergy further highlighted how adaptation involves both individualized tuning and filtering of suboptimal strategies. These findings suggest that expert performance in complex, high-DOF tasks relies on temporal refinement of existing synergies rather than structural reorganization, highlighting the importance of managing, rather than minimizing, motor complexity in the acquisition of advanced motor skills. Furthermore, our approach for identifying neuromuscular patterns linked to performance outcomes provides a foundation for targeted training interventions aimed at enhancing or restoring complex movement patterns.

The article presents a theoretical analysis and summarizes approaches to using the method of muscular-motor synchronization, from the Kinesioplasty system, in the sports training of young football players (6-7 years old) aimed at developing agility and coordination abilities. During the analysis and generalization of literary sources, it was determined that promoting the development of coordination qualities in conjunction with other physical abilities addresses important tasks of physical education aimed at preparing for the study and acquisition of new motor skills. The main form of organizing football activities is a training session, which includes all the characteristic structures of the educational process: types, methods, and means. The pedagogical research was conducted at the Sport Academy in Bucha, Kyiv Oblast, from September to November 2025. It involved 24 young football players who practice in sports sections for this type of sport. As a result of the theoretical study, it was found that the main means of learning football techniques is the acquisition of game elements, individual and group tactical actions, and the formation of movement skills. Spatial orientation in the process of teaching football to younger schoolchildren should primarily be developed using a set of tools that exclude the possibilities of visual analyzers. We develop speed coordination in football training in two directions: general speed coordination of movements, and the use of specially-prepared tools with the ball. The development of muscle-distance differentiation of efforts in younger school-age boys requires the manifestation of both accuracy and muscle sensation of different muscle groups. Muscle sensation in the process of football training is proposed to be developed both by generally accepted means and by those specific to the respective game activity. The obtained research results confirmed that the means of football contribute to better development of the studied qualities in the experimental group compared to the control group. Therefore, we can state that the use of football means is effective for improving the agility and coordination skills of young footballers.

This study investigates the effect of interactive video analysis on the acquisition of dribbling skills in basketball among first-year students at the College of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, University of Baghdad. A sample of 50 students was divided into an experimental group (n=25) receiving training with interactive video analysis and a control group (n=25) trained using traditional methods. The Johnson Basketball Dribble Test was administered as pre- and post-tests over an 8-week intervention (December 2024 to April 2025). Results showed significant improvements in both groups, with the experimental group demonstrating greater gains in dribbling speed and accuracy (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = 1.32). The findings highlight the efficacy of interactive video analysis in providing precise, real-time feedback to enhance motor skill acquisition. The study suggests that technology-enhanced training can improve basketball performance among novice learners, advocating its integration into physical education curricula. Limitations include the focus on dribbling and the short intervention duration, warranting further research on other skills and long-term effects.

Background: Emergency medicine requires precise and rapid execution of high‑risk procedures in time-sensitive environments, leaving limited opportunities for safe supervised practice. Neuroscientific discoveries, particularly related to the mirror neuron system (MNS), suggest that observational learning may effectively enhance motor skill acquisition without risk to patients. Aim: To comprehensively review the neurobiological foundations, educational applications, and practical implications of the MNS in emergency medicine procedural training. Material and methods: Narrative review including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science. Literature (2000–2024) concerning neuroscience, medical education, motor learning, and emergency medicine was analyzed. Results: Studies demonstrate that the MNS supports imitation, enhances procedural memory formation, and strengthens early motor skill acquisition. Educational strategies such as expert modeling, action observation, motor imagery, and multimodal simulation appear aligned with MNS activation and may optimize procedural training. Conclusions: The MNS offers a valuable, underutilized framework for optimizing procedural training in emergency medicine. Future research should integrate neurophysiological tools into educational research to directly examine the mechanisms by which observational learning enhances clinical performance.

Primary motor cortex (M1) is among the most heavily myelinated cortical regions and generates tightly coordinated neuronal activity patterns that drive skilled movement. Activity-dependent myelination is required for motor skill acquisition, and myelin loss in demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis leads to motor impairment. Yet how myelination influences neuronal activity underlying skilled behavior remains unclear. By combining in vivo imaging of oligodendrocytes with high density Neuropixels recordings during dexterous reaching, we demonstrate that cuprizone-induced demyelination impairs movement efficiency, and alters cell-type-specific neuronal activity and synchrony in a manner that predicts motor output. Using a computational model constrained by these data, we identify inhibitory axonal propagation failures as a mechanistic link between myelin loss and altered circuit function. Partial remyelination normalizes cortical network-level metrics and reach consistency but leaves smooth movement impaired, revealing a selective vulnerability in inhibitory circuits. These findings close a critical gap between cellular models of demyelination and clinical motor impairment by demonstrating how myelin supports cortical circuit dynamics driving skilled behavior.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) are two prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders among children. Both of these diseases, occurring independently or in combination, can result in significant motor skill deficits. The purpose of this study was to observe the improvement in motor performance and skill acquisition of children with ADHD + DCD in comparison with their peers with ADHD or DCD, through repeated practice in the MTSI game. A total of 139 children (37 ADHD, 33 ADHD + DCD, 34 DCD, 35 TD: Typically Developing) participated in the MTSI (Multi-task Sensorimotor Intervention), which involved five sensorimotor intervention tasks. The change of motor performance scores provided by the MTSI system was assessed with repeated measurements, and the skill acquisition in gross & fine motor skills before and after intervention was analyzed with a mixed-design repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc analysis. All groups of children demonstrated a significant increase in motor performance during repeated practice in MTSI and displayed great improvements in gross and fine motor skills, with ADHD + DCD children benefiting more in the magnitude. Multi-task sensorimotor intervention (MTSI) can effectively improve gross and fine motor skills for children with ADHD or DCD, and particularly for those with ADHD and DCD comorbidity, with tailored, multidimensional intervention strategies.

BackgroundPrecise finger force control is essential for performing everyday tasks such as writing, buttoning, and eating. While the neurophysiological basis of cognitive skill learning has been extensively studied, much less is known about the neural mechanisms supporting the acquisition of fine motor skills involving finger force control. This study aimed to investigate changes in cortical oscillatory activity and event-related potentials (ERPs) associated with the acquisition of fine finger force control.ResultsEighteen right-handed healthy young adults practiced a visual target-matching task using a left-hand pinch grip. Force control performance and electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings were assessed before and after training. Behavioral analyses revealed significant improvements in time to target, velocity to target, mean force error, and force variability, with no changes in reaction time. EEG analysis showed enhanced alpha- and beta-band event-related desynchronization after learning. ERP analysis further revealed a significant reduction in N2 amplitude and a significant increase in P3 amplitude following learning.ConclusionsThese results suggest that learning fine finger force control is accompanied by enhanced visuomotor processing, more efficient stimulus discrimination, and greater attentional allocation. This study provides novel insights into the neurophysiological underpinnings of fine motor skill acquisition.