Mongolian Gazelle Research Articles

Genetic Diversity of the Mongolian Gazelle Procapra guttorosa Pallas, 1777

The mitochondrial DNA D-loop hypervariable fragment sequence polymorphism was examined in 27 Mongolian gazelles from Mongolia, Russia, and China. Intraspecific polymorphism of the D-loop fragment examined was demonstrated. All haplotypes described were unique. The average nucleotide diversity (pi) for the mtDNA fragment investigated constituted 5.85 +/- 2.92%. A relatively high number of insertions and deletions was observed. In particular, a haplotype with the 77-bp insertion was described. The data obtained point to high genetic diversity of Mongolian populations. There was no correlation between the distribution of haplotypes examined and geographical location of the animal tissue sampling sites.

Preliminary Evidence of a Barrier Effect of a Railroad on the Migration of Mongolian Gazelles

Abstract: Much remains to be learned about how anthropogenic structures affect migration in large mammals. We examined the potential influence of the international railroad in Mongolia on migration in Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa). We examined gazelle movements and the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) on both sides of the railroad. The tracked gazelles never crossed the railroad, despite movements that mainly followed the railroad in winter and higher NDVI values on the opposite side. It is likely that the railroad had a barrier effect on gazelle migration because it split the gazelles' habitat. Our results, although based on an extremely small sample, have utility in indicating approaches that might be useful for examining migration in ungulates.

Estimating the population density of Mongolian gazelles Procapra gutturosa by driving long-distance transects

Despite a ≥75% reduction in the geographic range of Mongolian gazelles Procapra gutturosa over the past 50 years, the species is still recognized as the most numerous large grassland herbivore in Asia. Its actual population size, however, is still disputed, and we therefore estimated its numbers in an 80,000 km2 area in the eastern steppe of Mongolia by driving long-distance (1,200–1,400 km) transect surveys during spring and autumn 2000–2002. Quantitative estimates of gazelle numbers are essential for understanding the causes of changes in the population, and thus devising conservation strategies to assure its long-term viability. Observed herds ranged in size from 1–4,000; among surveys, median herd sizes varied from 14–42. Density estimates varied from 10.7 gazelles km−2 in spring to 11.5 gazelles km−2 in autumn, with total population estimates of 803,820 (483,790–1,330,100 95% confidence interval) and 870,625 (499,432–1,491,278 95% confidence interval), respectively. Confidence limits were wide, and to obtain a coefficient of variation of 20%, transect lengths would need to be extended three- to four-fold. Until more efficient means for conducting population surveys can be implemented, driving long-distance transects, combined with distance analysis, seem to provide the best quantitative estimate of Mongolian gazelle populations.

Reproduction, neonatal weights, and first‐year survival of Mongolian gazelles ( Procapra gutturosa )

Mongolian gazelles Procapra gutturosa were observed, hand-captured and radio-monitored in the eastern steppe of Mongolia during 1998–2003 to understand better their reproduction and survival. During early June, 92% (range = 87–96%) of adult (≥ 2 years old) females observed (mean n = 735/year) were pregnant, and nearly all gave birth during a 10-day interval (24 June–3 July) each year. Mean mass of neonate (1–2 days old) calves (mean n = 47/year) was greater for males than for females, and masses were directly correlated with mean monthly temperatures the previous winter (December–April). Survival during the first 10 days of life for 111 radio-marked neonate calves monitored during 2000–03 (n = 9–55/year) was 0.83 and did not seem to vary with birth weight. Also, deaths owing to hypothermia, abandonment, or unknown causes (interval cause-specific mortality rate = 0.16) outnumbered deaths owing to predation (0.02) during this interval. Survival rates were similar during the rest of the year (0.86 for 355 days) when most mortalities were owing to predation (interval mortality rate = 0.12 vs 0.01). Annual survival of calves was 0.71 (95% CI = 0.61–0.82). Gazelle births are highly synchronous, probably to take most advantage of the short summer growing season, and perhaps to avoid deleterious spring weather and to minimize predation. High fecundity and relatively high calf survival, especially during the first weeks of life, support the notion that gazelle populations can recover fairly quickly from demographic catastrophes.

Food overlap between Mongolian gazelles and livestock in Omnogobi, southern Mongolia

Botanical and particle size compositions of the feces of sympatric Mongolian gazelles, sheep/goats, and horses collected in southern Mongolia in autumn 2002 were analyzed. The botanical composition of Mongolian gazelles was similar to that of sheep/goats where dicotyledonous plants (64.6% for Mongolian gazelles, 65.6% for sheep/goats), particularly woody fibers were important (39.5% for Mongolian gazelles, 19.5% for sheep/goats). In contrast, horse feces were exclusively composed of graminoids (93.2%). Consequently, food overlap was great between Mongolian gazelles and sheep/goats (Pianka's index: 0.977) but was small between Mongolian gazelles and horses (0.437) and sheep/goats and horses (0.421). Particle size distributions were also similar between Mongolian gazelles and sheep/goats, whereas they were different between horses and Mongolian gazelles and horses and sheep/goats. These results support our expectation based on the Jarman‐Bell principle. Although interspecific competition cannot be inferred from a mere food overlap, our analyses suggest that sheep and goats are potential competitors for Mongolian gazelles. Therefore, the increase in the numbers of domestic sheep/goats might pose a risk for Mongolian gazelle populations.

Illegal and Unsustainable Wildlife Hunting and Trade in Mongolia

Recent reports and studies document dramatic declines in a wide variety of wildlife species in Mongolia. The prime driver in these declines appears to be illegal and unsustainable hunting, both for local trade and consumption and for the international market. While data on these declines are sparse, comparisons of survey reports since the 1980s present evidence that some species may have declined by up to 90% in recent years. We outline the situation for eight major species of wildlife in Mongolia (saiga antelope, Mongolian gazelle, red deer, musk deer, argali, brown bear, Siberian marmot, and saker falcon). We then review the existing legal conditions and government efforts to control this situation, and suggest specific changes and actions that Mongolia should take to halt these dramatic declines in wildlife populations and avoid what may soon become an extinction crisis.

Recent Management and Conservation Initiatives for Mongolian Gazelle, Mongolian Saiga Antelope, and Gobi Bear

Recent Management and Conservation Initiatives for Mongolian Gazelle, Mongolian Saiga Antelope, and Gobi Bear

Phylogenetic relationships of Chinese antelopes (sub family Antilopinae) based on mitochondrial Ribosomal RNA gene sequences

AbstractThe partial mitochondrial 12S rRNA and 16S rRNA gene sequences (440 bp and 590 bp or so, respectively were determined of the Przewalski's gazelle Procapra przewalskii, Mongolian gazelle P. gutturosa, Tibetan gazelle P. picticaudata, goitered gazelle Gazella gutturosa, saiga Saiga tatarica, Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni, and thar Hemitragus jemlahicus. The average sequence divergence for all the species studied when both rRNA genes were combined was 8.4% (±0.7%), and the divergence values ranged from 0.5% to 13.3%. The average sequence divergence values for 16S rRNA gene and for 12S rRNA gene were 9.9% (±1.1%) and 6.3% (±1.1%), respectively. The sequence divergences among species of Procapra for 16S rRNA gene and for 12S rRNA gene were 1.4%(±0.5%) and 1.1% (±0.6%), respectively. Our phylogenetic analysis revealed the monophyly of the genus Procapra and that Przewalski's gazelle is more closely related to the Mongolian gazelle than to the Tibetan gazelle. We also found that the genus Procapra is closely related to Antilopini. We argued that the critically endangered Przewalski's gazelle should be treated as a species, not a subspecies of the Tibetan gazelle, which clearly warrants more attention from conservationists.

The highly specialized vocal tract of the male Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777--Mammalia, Bovidae).

The entire head and neck of a wild adult male Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) was dissected with special reference to its enlarged larynx. Two additional adult male specimens taken from the wild were analysed by computer tomography. The sternomandibularis, omohyoideus, thyrohyoideus and hyoepiglotticus muscles are particularly enlarged and improve laryngeal suspension and stabilization. The epiglottis is exceptionally large. A permanent laryngeal descent is associated with the evolution of an unpaired palatinal pharyngeal pouch. A certain momentary descent seems to occur during vocalization. The high lateral walls of the thyroid cartilage are ventrally connected by a broad keel. The large thyroarytenoid muscle is divided into two portions: a rostral ventricularis and a caudal vocalis muscle. A paired lateral laryngeal ventricle projects between these two muscles. The massive vocal fold is large and lacks any rostrally directed flexible structures. It is supported by a large cymbal-like fibroelastic pad. Vocal tract length was measured in the course of dissection and in computer tomographic images. Two representative spectrograms, one of an adult male and one of a juvenile, recorded in the natural habitat of the Mongolian gazelle are presented. In the spectrograms, the centre frequency of the lowest band is about 500 Hz in the adult male and about 790 Hz in the juvenile. The low pitch of the adult male's call is ascribed to the evolutionary mass increase and elongation of the vocal folds. In the habitat of P. gutturosa a call with a low pitch and, thus, with an almost homogeneous directivity around the head of the vocalizing animal may be optimally suited for multidirectional advertisement calls during the rut. The signal range of an adult male's call in its natural habitat can therefore be expected to be larger than the high-pitched call of a juvenile.

Changes in vigilance with group size under scramble competition.

Animals often interrupt foraging to scan the surrounding environment. In several taxa, such vigilance decreases with group size (Elgar 1989). The decline in vigilance is usually interpreted as a decrease in the predation risk to an individual in large groups. Mechanisms such as increased detection ability and numerical dilution of risk may provide more protection to foragers in large groups, thus leading to lower vigilance (Pulliam 1973; Roberts 1996; Bednekoff and Lima 1998). Nevertheless, recent work indicates that the decrease in vigilance with group size may be mitigated against if individuals in large groups scan more to avoid displacements by aggressive companions (Slotow and Coumi 2000; Treves 2000) or to locate the food discoveries of other group members (Beauchamp 2001). We explore the role of resource availability on vigilance patterns. In earlier vigilance models, a decrease in vigilance would allow foragers either to decrease the total amount of time needed to accumulate a fixed amount of resources (Pulliam et al. 1982) or to increase feeding rate over a given time horizon (McNamara and Houston 1992). In either case, no competition for resources is assumed to take place. However, when resources are limited, a reduction in vigilance may allow individuals to allocate more time to foraging and so obtain a greater share of the re-

Seasonal changes in parotid and rumen papillary development in Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa Pallas)

The Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa Pallas) lives in the Mongolian Plateau, where conditions are dry and cold from late autumn to early spring. The climate results in apparent seasonal changes in the nutrition of forage plants on the plateau. The morphology of the gazelle's rumen papillae and the weight of their salivary glands also reflect these changes. The relative weight of the parotids to body mass (0.8–1.3 g kg−1 and 1.8–2.7 g kg−0.75) and the surface enlargement factor (SEF) of the internal rumen wall (8.5–12.0) fell within the range of mixed (intermediate) feeders. Although previous studies in a great number of ruminants have shown that parotid mass and SEF are positively related to feed quality, we found that relative parotid mass to body mass increased in winter, the dry and cold season, during the poorest dietary conditions. The surface enlargement factor increased from autumn to winter and spring, during the poorest and best seasons in feed quality, respectively. It is possible that an increase in parotid mass is related to water shortage from both feed and habitat in winter. An increase in parotid mass, suggesting an increase in saliva production, could meet the liquid needs of the gazelles during feeding and rumination in poor and dry forage seasons. The development of rumen papilla and the consequent increase in SEF in poor food seasons should result in the effective absorption of nutrients by Mongolian gazelles.

Sexual Dimorphism of the Larynx of the Mongolian Gazelle ( Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777) (Mammalia, Artiodactyla, Bovidae)

The larynges (except for the epiglottis) of two adult Mongolian gazelles, one male and one female, were dissected. This species is characterized by a pronounced sexual dimorphism of the larynx. Dimorphism with regard to the size of the entire larynx and of the thyroid cartilage is about 2:1 whereas the difference of mean body mass is about 1.3:1 between males and females. Unexpectedly, and in contrast to other bovids, the larynx of the male Mongolian gazelle has a paired lateral laryngeal ventricle. However, in contrast to horse, dog, pig and many primate species also possessing such a paired ventricle, its rostral opening in the Mongolian gazelle is situated lateral to the corniculate process of the arytenoid cartilage. The neck of the laryngeal ventricle is embraced by the bifurcated cuneiform process of the epiglottis. Despite the enlarged laryngeal cartilages, the vocal process of the male arytenoid cartilage is relatively shorter than that of the female. The male thyroarytenoid muscle is clearly separated into a rostral ventricular muscle and a caudal vocal muscle whereas the female's, as in other bovids, is almost uniform. The lateral sac of the two-chambered laryngeal ventricle in the male projects laterally between the ventricular and the vocal muscle. As in the domestic bovids and in many other artiodactyls the larynx of the male Mongolian gazelle is lacking any rostrally directed membraneous portion of the vocal fold. Instead, the thick and tough bow-like vocal fold projects caudally into the infraglottic cavity and is supported by a peculiar pan-like fibroelastic pad. This resilient element, situated medial to the bipartite thyroarytenoid muscle, might be a homologue of the vocal ligament, eventually including lateral portions of the elastic cone. A fibroelastic pad is absent in the female. The resilient floor of the laryngeal vestibulum, ventral to the fibroelastic pad, is rostrally and caudally subducted by tube-like spaces. Evolutionary enlargement of the male larynx, including the vocal folds, and of the caudal portions of the vocal tract may have shifted the fundamental and formant frequencies to a lower register. The paired lateral laryngeal ventricle might produce an amplitude increase of the vocalizations assisted by differential action of the bipartite thyroarytenoid muscle. In addition, the peculiar shape, size and tough consistency of the male vocal folds may, as in roaring felids, assist in producing high amplitude and low frequency vocalizations. Perhaps the biological role of the enlarged male larynx of Procapra gutturosa has evolved in relation to its mating system. In the rutting season, dominant males establish individual territories and maintain harems. During prolonged courtship prior to mating, these males perform an acoustic display uttering loud and guttural bellows. In addition, the bulging ventral neck region of males may serve as an optical attractant for the females. Thus, the evolution of the enlarged larynx of the male Mongolian gazelle may have been favoured by sexual selection.

Management of Mongolian Gazelles as a Sustainable Resource

An international workshop on gazelle harvesting and management was held in Ulaanbaatar, Mongoliain October, 2003. The major output from this workshop was the general agreement that no commercialhunt can be recommended at this time. This is because of the high level of poaching that is appearing tobe having a negative impact on gazelle numbers. Best estimates put the existing gazelle population atabout one million and decreasing. Models have suggested that this population could sustain an annual6% commercial offtake. However, it is estimated that the illegal offtake may be near or exceed 10%annually. If so, this would explain why the population of gazelles is decreasing even without a legalcommercial hunt. While there are adequate laws to deal with poaching, there is extremely poor enforcementdue to a lack of funding, equipment, and will. We recommend against a commercial harvest until poachingis controlled and there is a sound monitoring system in place, and until monitoring shows gazellepopulations to be stable or increasing.

Feeding Type and Seasonal Digestive Strategy of Mongolian Gazelles in China

Feeding Type and Seasonal Digestive Strategy of Mongolian Gazelles in China

FEEDING TYPE AND SEASONAL DIGESTIVE STRATEGY OF MONGOLIAN GAZELLES IN CHINA

Abstract We measured seasonal variations of gut macrostructure of 36 Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa) collected in Xiqi, Inner Mongolia. Relative weight of ruminoreticular contents (9–14% of body weight) and relative length of the total intestine (15–18 times body length) were within the range of intermediate feeders. Proportional length of large intestine to total intestine (29–31%) falls within the range of browsers and suggests that distal digestion is important for small intermediate feeders. Total weight of gut with contents was 27–36% greater in winter than in spring because of the increase in contents of ruminoreticulum and large intestine, suggesting that both proximal and distal fermentation are more important in winter than in spring.

Seasonal Variations in Foods and Digestion of Mongolian Gazelles in China

Data on feeding ecology of wild animals is essential for effective wildlife management and conservation. We studied the feeding ecology of the Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) in the Hulun Buir Grassland, Inner Mongolia, China. The Hulun Buir Grassland is characterized by food shortage due to long, cold winters. Concentration of crude protein in forage decreased from 18.2 to 29.6% during spring to 2.5 to 5.6% during the dormant season. The diets of the animals shifted seasonally: forb leaves and flowers made up 56.9% of their diet during spring, but graminoids increased during other seasons. Mongolian gazelles can digest fibrous food more efficiently during autumn and winter than during spring. These results suggest that the Mongolian gazelle is an intermediate feeder. To provide high-quality and abundant forage in Mongolian gazelle habitat, the grazing of livestock should be reduced. It is necessary to maintain grasslands at moderate or light grazing for Mongolian gazelle management.

Molecular Support for the Placement of Saiga and Procapra in Antilopinae (Artiodactyla, Bovidae)

The evolutionary history of the bovid subfamily Antilopinae is unclear. Traditionally, this subfamily is subdivided into two tribes: Neotragini (dwarf antelopes) and Antilopini (gazelles and their relatives). Here, we report new sequences for the 12S and 16S rRNA genes in the enigmatic antilopine taxa Procapra gutturosa and Saiga tatarica and analyze the phylogenetic relationships of these taxa relative to other antilopines. Our study demonstrates the close affinity of the saiga antelope to Gazella despite the conventional systematic allocation of Saiga to the Caprinae subfamily. The second member of the Saigini tribe, Pantholops hodgsoni (Tibetan gazelle), falls within Caprinae. In all of our analyses, Procapra gutturosa occupied a basal position in the Antilopinae clade or was a sister-group to the dwarf antelope Madoqua. This suggests early separation of Procapra from other antelopes.

Spatial patterns in relative primary productivity and gazelle migration in the Eastern Steppes of Mongolia

The Mongolian gazelle ( Procapra gutturosa) of the Eastern Steppes of Mongolia shows seasonal migrations to traditional winter and calving grounds with diffuse movements during the intervening periods. We used a normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), derived from coarse-resolution satellite imagery, to map relative primary productivity of steppes between April 1992 and December 1995. Productivity peaks were variable between years, but winter and calving grounds had highest NDVI scores during periods of use by gazelles. Gazelle movements to these areas track shifts in primary productivity across the steppe. Diffuse movements in summer were not matched to peaks in productivity. Productivity ‘hotspots’ utilized by gazelles during critical periods in their life cycle should be first priority for conservation and the impact of livestock grazing on these areas should be evaluated.

A comparison of several indices for assessing body condition of Mongolian gazelle

Riney kidney fat index (RKFI), whole kidney fat index (WKFI), femur marrow fat index (FMFI), and tibia marrow fat index (TMFI) of 51 Mongolian gazelles (Procapra gutturosa), collected in Hulunbeier grassland, Inner Mongolian, China, were measured during spring, autumn and winter in 1997–98. These different indexes were compared for using them in assessing the body condition. There was a linear relationship (y=0.9444x−20.139; r=0.9454; p<0.01) between RKFI and KMFI. A linear relationship (y=0.9348x+1.1843; r=0.9875; P<0.01) between TMFI and FMFI also occurred for gazelles. There was a curvilinear relationship (y=31.44Ln(x)−44.403; r=0.8643; P<0.01) between FMFI and RKFI. FMFI remained high, while RKFI decreased to a certain extent. After most of the kidney fat was used, the femur marrow fat abruptly decreased. The results showed that the kidney fat index is more adequate for evaluating the population nutrition in good condition, but marrow fat index was more useful for assessing in poorer nutritional condition.

Food habits and selective grazing of Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) in Hulunber Grassland

The food availability, composition of the diets and selective grazing of the Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa) were studied in Hulunber Grassland in Nei Monggol. The food availability of Mongolian gazelle showed seasonal changes. The plant biomass was higher in spring and summer than that in autumn and winter. The fecal compositions of the gazelle demonstrated that fibrous parts occupied 62.4%, 74.8%, and 66.0% in spring, autumn, and winter, respectively. The Mongolian gazelle preferred to grazeCompositeae, Leguminosae, Allium spp. and other forbs in spring and autumn, while the grasses, such asAneurolepidium chinense andStipa spp. were selectively feeding in winter.