This study investigates the fabrication of molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) composite electrolytes using the innovative technique of freeze casting. This method effectively creates directionally structured electrolytes that enhance ionic conductivity and overall performance, addressing the limitations of conventional electrolyte systems. By utilizing freeze casting, a uniform distribution of materials within the composite electrolyte is achieved, facilitating the incorporation of various ion-conducting components, such as carbonates and ceria-based materials. The resulting directionally structured design promotes improved ionic transport pathways, which are crucial for enhancing electrochemical performance in MCFCs. The study reveals that the freeze casting method not only enables the formation of optimized microstructures but also significantly improves ionic conductivity, with measurements indicating substantial enhancements over traditional electrolyte compositions. These advancements underscore the potential of this approach to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of MCFC technology, making it a promising candidate for next-generation energy systems.

Global energy demand has increased significantly due to world population growth and the industrialization of developing economies. Its production has been based mainly on fossil-fuel energy, increasing the global warming effect upon the rise of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2). In this context, the International Energy Agency reported that the global temperature will increase by 2.7 °C by 2100, which can be decreased by using renewable energies, as written by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Moreover, according to the last report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, it is crucial to substantially reduce CO2 emissions and other greenhouse gases to improve air quality and stabilize global temperatures. However, nowadays, world energy generation from renewable resources, such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, biomass, tidal, and geothermal, only corresponds to 40%.Fuel cell technology is an excellent opportunity for reducing the dependence on fossil fuels and carbon footprint production. FC uses clean energy with a high conversion efficiency and system configuration that facilitates the easy capture of CO2. Different FC exists according to the operation temperature, the electrolyte chemical nature, and the fuel, increasing the conversion efficiency at higher temperatures, such as in Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells and Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, or even more recent Hybrid Fuel Cells, combining both previously mentioned technologies. Although FC has existed for decades, challenges exist to improve its efficiency. Therefore, developing new functional materials for innovative devices or applications is crucial in our changing world. New paradigms are necessary to produce cleaner energy or cheaper and more efficient materials for transport or other domains.This work focuses on the corrosion performance of a nickel-aluminum bronze alloy (NAB) obtained by laser powder bed fusion exposed to molten carbonate at high temperatures under a hydrogen/nitrogen atmosphere. Using electrochemical measurements and surface analyses, NAB samples were monitored before and after 120 hours of exposure between 550 and 650 °C. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of NAB demonstrated that an oxide film was formed on the NAB surface, rich in Al2O3 and Cu2O. Open circuit potential and impedance analysis of NAB revealed that the oxide film was stable under the exposure condition. In addition, the impedance analyses showed a capacitive behavior associated with a porous behavior, relate to the oxide film, and a Warburg impedance.

Fuel cells have a wide range of potential applications in various fields such as stationary power generation, transportation, and portable electronic devices, thanks to their high energy conversion efficiencies, environmentally friendly structures, and simple design features. This study takes a comprehensive approach to fuel cell technologies, starting with the fundamental operating principles and historical development process of fuel cells. Different systems, such as alkaline fuel cells (AFC), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), and direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC), are examined and compared in detail in terms of their operating principles, advantages, limitations, and application areas. Furthermore, the theoretical performance limits of fuel cells and the losses observed in the systems are analyzed, and improvement strategies to reduce these losses are dis-cussed. Special emphasis is placed on PEMFC technology due to its high potential in automotive and portable energy sys-tems. In this context, the structural components of PEMFCs, types of proton exchange membranes, and the main character-istics expected from these membranes are comprehensively addressed. To better understand proton transfer processes, pro-ton transfer mechanisms such as Grotthuss, vehicle, and surface mechanisms are also explained in detail. In conclusion, this review aims to establish a conceptual bridge between the fundamental principles of fuel cell technologies and the current challenges and advances in PEMFC membrane development research.

Fuel cell technology is considered one of the most important solutions for clean energy, characterized by its high efficiency, minimal pollution, and adaptability across various sectors such as transportation, stationary energy, and portable electronics. Over the past two decades, significant progress has been made in materials science, system design, and cost optimization, enhancing the feasibility of commercialization. This paper follows the development of various types of fuel cells, including Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC), Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC), Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC), Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC), and Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC), highlighting key innovations and market launches. The review emphasizes significant technical challenges, particularly concerning durability, catalyst degradation, and hydrogen infrastructure systems. Additionally, it outlines the existing state of fuel cell technology and proposes a strategy for integrating fuel cells into global low-carbon energy systems. From a decarbonization perspective, incorporating fuel cells into energy systems is crucial, as they not only provide high efficiency but also operate without emitting harmful pollutants. The article reviews advancements in fuel cell technology from 2020 to 2024, comparing performance metrics with market applications and obstacles to market entry. Assessments of over 80 peer-reviewed studies indicate that PEMFCs are achieving 0.85 A/cm² at 0.6V, while SOFCs are reaching 60% electrical efficiency in combined heat and power (CHP) applications. Currently, most deployments, comprising 62% of market share, are in the transportation sector; however, significant challenges remain in material stability and hydrogen infrastructure. Progress in fuel cell technology hinges on the integration of anion-exchange membranes, platinum-group-metal-free catalysts, and advanced manufacturing capabilities.

HighlightsReversible molten Carbonate fuel cell integrates well with biomass gasification.Raw product gases from gasification show similar performance to hydrogen-rich fuel.Raw product gas’s humidity and composition affect molten carbonate cell performance.Direct oxygen-steam and indirect steam gasification at 650 °C are the most compatible.

High-temperature fuel cells and electrolyzers, particularly molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) and Molten Carbonate Electrolyzers (MCEs), are expected to play a critical role in clean power generation, hydrogen production, and integrated CO2 separation. Unfortunately, despite their potential, these technologies have not yet reached full commercialization. The main reason for this is material degradation. In particular, the corrosion of metallic components continues to be a leading cause of performance loss and system failure. This review provides a comprehensive assessment of degradation mechanisms in MCFC and MCE systems. It examines key metallic components, such as current collectors and bipolar plates, focusing on the performance of commonly used materials, including stainless steels and advanced alloys, under prolonged exposure to corrosive environments. To address degradation issues, this review evaluates current mitigation strategies and discusses material selection, protective coatings application, and the optimization of operational parameters. Advances in alloy development, coatings, surface treatments, and process controls have been compared in terms of effectiveness, scalability, and long-term stability. The review concludes with a synthesis of current best practices and future directions, emphasizing the need for integrated, multi-functional solutions to achieve the lifetimes required for full commercialization. By linking materials science, electrochemistry, and systems engineering, this review offers directions for the development of corrosion-resistant MCFC and MCE technologies in support of a hydrogen-based, carbon-neutral energy future.

The article describes a mathematical model of methanol steam reforming taking place at the anode of a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC). An artificial neural network with an appropriate structure was subjected to a learning process on the data obtained during an experiment on the laboratory stand for testing high-temperature fuel cells located at the Institute of Heat Engineering of the Warsaw University of Technology. The backpropagation of error method was used to train the neural network. The training data included the results of methanol steam reforming in the fuel cell for steam-to-carbon ratios of 2:1, 3:1, and 4:1. The artificial neural network was then asked to generate results for other steam-to-carbon ratios. As a result, the artificial neural network predicted that the highest power density for a molten carbonate fuel cell working on methanol would be obtained with a steam-to-carbon ratio of 2.8:1. The article’s key achievement is the application of artificial intelligence to calculate an unusual steam-to-carbon ratio for the methanol steam reforming process occurring directly at the anode of an MCFC fuel cell. The solution proposed in the article contributed to reducing the number of experimental studies.

This study evaluates the wear and corrosion resistance of the Cu-50Ni-5Al alloy reinforced with CeO2 nanoparticles for potential use as anodes in molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs). Cu-50Ni-5Al alloys were synthesized, with and without the incorporation of 1% CeO2 nanoparticles, by the mechanical alloying method and spark plasma sintering (SPS). The samples were evaluated using a single scratch test with a cone-spherical diamond indenter under progressive normal loading conditions. A non-contact 3D surface profiler characterized the scratched surfaces to support the analysis. Progressive loading tests indicated a reduction of up to 50% in COF with 1% NPs, with specific values drop-ping from 0.48 in the unreinforced alloy to 0.25 in the CeO2-doped composite at 15 N of applied load. Furthermore, the introduction of CeO2 decreased scratch depths by 25%, indicating enhanced wear resistance. The electrochemical behavior of the samples was evaluated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in a molten carbonate medium under a H2/N2 atmosphere at 550 °C for 120 h. Subsequently, the corrosion products were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The results demonstrated that the CeO2-reinforced alloy exhibits superior electro-chemical stability in molten carbonate environments (Li2CO3-K2CO3) under an H2/N2 atmosphere at 550 °C for 120 h. A marked reduction in polarization resistance and a pronounced re-passivation effect were observed, suggesting enhanced anodic protection. This effect is attributed to the formation of aluminum and copper oxides in both compositions, together with the appearance of NiO as the predominant phase in the materials reinforced with nanoparticles in a hydrogen-reducing atmosphere. The addition of CeO2 nanoparticles significantly improves wear resistance and corrosion performance. Recognizing this effect is vital for creating strategies to enhance the material's durability in challenging environments like MCFC.

The cathode in a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) was made using the tape casting method from a slurry with a suitable chemical composition consisting of porogen, allowing it to achieve a porous structure. Currently used porogens in creating cathode structures are synthetic polymers, which release hazardous substances into the environment during thermal removal. Therefore, it is very important to find a safer alternative before industrial production of fuel cells begins and reduce its impact on the environment. The research aimed to analyze the possibility of using various porogens to obtain a fuel cell's cathode microstructure and compare them to a reference cathode. The electrodes were produced using cheap, accessible, and natural porogens. Chosen porogens were post-production waste materials such as wheat straw, hemp, and beet pulp. They were used solo or coupled to create the cathode of MCFC, thoroughly characterized in the context of morphology, structure, and chemical composition. After optimization, final MCFC cathodes were characterized by SEM, Archimedes porosimetry, gas porosimetry, and gas permeability. The highest power density (100 mW/cm2) was obtained for the cathode, which was made with starch and straw, while starch and PVB enabled the achievement of 90 mW/cm2 of the MCFC cathode.

Traditional energy production in agriculture has limitations in transportation and inefficient use of resources. Additionally, agricultural waste management has not been fully utilized. These problems have driven the development of new technologies that can use agricultural waste for energy production, while also improving efficiency and reducing environmental impact. This research investigates the integration of biomass gasification with a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) for efficient energy production. Biomass gasification, using rice husk as fuel, produces syngas composed of hydrogen (H2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and methane (CH4). The syngas is utilized in an MCFC, where its electrochemical reactions generate electricity. A detailed thermodynamic analysis was performed using the Engineering Equation Solver (EES) and MATLAB to simulate gasification outputs and MCFC performance. The study focused on the effects of the stream-to-biomass ratio (STBR) on gas composition, with results showing an increase in H2 production and a decrease in CO as the STBR increases, driven by the water-gas shift reaction. Additionally, the simulation of the MCFC revealed that both voltage and efficiency decrease as current density increases, primarily due to ohmic losses. The integrated system achieves a gasification efficiency of 40.9% and an MCFC energy efficiency of 66.7%. These findings provide valuable insights for optimizing renewable energy systems that combine biomass gasification and fuel cells, contributing to advancements in sustainable power generation.

Fuel cells provide a sustainable and efficient power generation option, serving as an alternative to traditional energy systems dependent on fossil fuels. This research presents a detailed evaluation of prominent fuel cell technologies, including Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs), Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs), Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs), Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs), Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs), Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs), High-Temperature PEMFCs (HT-PEMFCs), and Direct Carbon Fuel Cells (DCFCs), for electricity generation using clean hydrogen as the primary fuel source. The evaluation focuses on key performance indicators such as efficiency, operating temperature, power density, fuel flexibility, and material requirements. The analysis reveals that PEMFCs exhibit superior overall performance, largely due to their efficient operation at lower temperatures, compact structure, and rapid startup, making them highly suitable for mobile and portable energy applications. While SOFCs offer excellent fuel flexibility and are well-suited for large-scale stationary applications, their high operating temperatures present material and longevity challenges. AFCs and PAFCs demonstrate moderate efficiencies and operational stability but are limited by CO₂ sensitivity and lower power densities. MCFCs and DCFCs deliver high efficiencies and carbon capture capabilities, yet their high-temperature operation results in material degradation. DMFCs, although compact and compatible with methanol, face performance limitations such as methanol crossover. Since different technologies excel in specific applications, PEMFCs are considered most suitable for large-scale integration into hydrogen-powered energy systems due to their well-balanced combination of performance, efficiency, and deployment potential.

Abstract This article describes an experimental study and mathematical modeling of a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) powered by methane thanks to the use of a recycled catalyst in the anode channel of the cell. The catalyst was created from production residues from the electrodes of the molten carbonate fuel cell. The reforming process will also take place at the anode of the cell itself, but thanks to the use of an additional catalyst, we will obtain a larger surface on which the reforming process will take place. Two mathematical models working together were created: the fuel cell model (reduced-order model) and the reforming process model (kinetic model). Four values of the steam-to-carbon ratio (2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 3.5) were considered. The performance of the fuel cell was also tested for different methane flows to determine the flow at which benefits are achieved in relation to the cell without additional catalyst. The current–voltage curve for the MCFC fuel cell powered by methane and steam (S/C = 2) at the temperature of 700 °C and with the use of the catalyst runs well above the curve for the cell without a catalyst. This indicates a noticeable positive effect of the recycled catalyst on the performance of the fuel cell powered by methane and steam. Despite partially successful experimental studies, it should be emphasized that the temperature of 700 °C is insufficient for pure nickel to act effectively as a catalyst for the methane steam reforming process.

This study proposes a novel system integrating a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) with a dry reforming process (DR-MCFC) and develops a corresponding simulation model. In a DR-MCFC, the reacting gases from the dry reforming of methane (DRM) process are fed into a molten carbonate fuel cell. CH4 and CO2 were used as the reaction gases, while N2 was employed as the carrier gas and introduced into the DRM. Following the DRM, the reformed gases were humidified and injected into the anode of the MCFC. A simulation model combining the dry reforming process and the MCFC was developed using COMSOL Multiphysics to evaluate the system’s performance and feasibility. The mole fraction of H2 after the DRM ranged from 0.181 to 0.214 under five different gas conditions. The average current density of the fuel cell varied between 1321.5 and 1444.9 A·m−2 at a cell voltage of 0.8 V, which was up to 27.07% lower than that of a conventional MCFC operating at 923 K due to the lower hydrogen concentration in the anode. Based on these results, the integration of dry reforming with the MCFC’s operation did not cause any operational issues, demonstrating the feasibility of the proposed DR-MCFC system.

This work presents an advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of a 5 kW molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) stack intended to provide a broad analysis and deliver improved design through optimizing flow distribution. The goal is to provide a variant analysis of flow distribution in the internal channels through the CFD model. SolidWorks was used to design the MCFC stack, and SOLIDWORKS® Flow Simulation was utilized to model the flow distribution inside the stack. The simulated stack was validated through an experimental investigation of a 5 kW MCFC stack, empirically measuring pressure and flow distribution in an experimental laboratory station optimized for multi-scale fuel cell stack testing. The test was designed to examine a variety of internal flow distribution factors. The verified CFD model was employed for sensitivity analysis on various scales. To enhance the design, the influence of stack and single-cell constructional characteristics on the 5 kW MCFC was investigated.

Plasma gasification is a promising technology for integration with molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) and chemical looping reforming (CLR) process for effective utilization of refused derived fuels.

In contemporary power generation, enhancing efficiency and mitigating environmental contamination are of paramount importance. The imperative to curtail greenhouse gas emissions stands as a preeminent challenge within this sector. Concurrently, there is a marked surge in the exploitation of renewable energy sources, which, due to their intermittent nature, precipitates the imperative for advanced energy storage solutions. This paper introduces an integrated system designed to address both the reduction of CO2 emissions and the storage of energy. The advocated system integrates a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC), Solid Oxide Electrolysis Cell (SOEC), and a Sabatier reactor. The MCFC is employed for its proficient CO2 capture capabilities at the cathode, exhibiting remarkable efficiency, operational flexibility, and a high CO2 separation quotient. The SOEC is recognized for its effective hydrogen production, leveraging high operational temperatures to augment hydrogen output while diminishing electrical energy consumption through thermal energy substitution. The Sabatier reactor is utilized for catalytic methanation, transforming CO2 into Substitute Natural Gas—a compound predominantly comprising methane and hydrogen with minimal CO2 and water traces. This system facilitates the capture and utilization of over 80% of CO2 from exhaust fumes, achieving an overall energy efficiency of 71%. The system's design and off-design operational parameters were meticulously modeled and analyzed.

Analysis of the assembly pressure of a high-power molten carbonate fuel cell stack during initial roasting

Techno-Economic and CO2 Emissions Analysis of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Integration in a DRI Production Plant for the Decarbonization of the Steel Industry

Novel integration of molten carbonate fuel cell stacks in a biomass-based Rankine cycle power plant with CO2 separation: A techno-economic and environmental study

Study on the carbon migration from fossil fuel to liquid methanol by integrating solar energy into the advanced power system