Molecular Communication Research Articles

Secrecy capacity in two-hop diffusive molecular communication systems

This paper presents a novel optically controllable molecular communication (MC) transmitter (TX) design based on vesicular nanodevices (NDs), functionalized for controlled signaling molecule release via transmembrane proteins. All system components are chemically realizable, bridging the gap between MC theory and practical implementation. The NDs enable optical-to-chemical signal conversion, making them suitable as externally controllable TXs in various MC systems. The proposed design comprises two cooperating modules, namely an energizing and a release module, allowing the release of different signaling molecules depending on the module configuration. We introduce a general system model and provide a detailed mathematical analysis of a specific TX realization, deriving both exact and approximate analytical expressions for the released signaling molecule concentration, which are validated via numerical methods. The proposed model also accounts for the impact of buffering media commonly present in experimental or in-body environments. We further incorporate the impact of multiple NDs and parameter randomness inherent to vesicle synthesis into our model. The proposed models for single and multiple ND scenarios enable system parameter optimization, aiding the future experimental realization of the proposed MC TXs.

Conventional electromagnetic communication systems face limitations in dense environments, including high energy consumption, signal attenuation, and interference. To overcome these challenges, we present a bioinspired molecular communication (MC) platform using spatiotemporally allied single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) sensors for volatile organic compound (VOC)-based signal transmission. Inspired by nature's chemical signaling, this system employs hierarchical functionalized SWCNT sensor arrays to detect and interpret data-specified VOC pulses with high precision, mimicking pheromone-based communication. The system employs hydrophobic and biodegradable polymer-functionalized SWCNTs on nanoporous cellulose paper for enhanced VOC selectivity and response dynamics, enabling spatial and temporal signal encoding for robust multibit data transmission. Integrated machine learning (ML) algorithms facilitate signal decoding, pattern recognition, and environmental adaptation, ensuring reliable communication under varying conditions. The hierarchical sensor architecture and selective VOC interactions enable applications in gas detection, environmental monitoring, industrial safety, and real-time communication in inaccessible areas. Chromatographic detection of VOC mixtures within the layered sensor network further expands data transmission capacity, offering a scalable, energy-efficient alternative to conventional methods. This study advances bioinspired molecular communication, integrating nanomaterials with spatiotemporal sensing for next-generation, low-power, high-fidelity communication.

The emerging paradigm of cell-to-cell communication represents a transformative shift from device-mediated contact to bio-integrated, emotion-driven interactions. This article introduces a novel, multi-layered framework for enabling biologically integrated communication between cells, devices, and computational systems using the paradigm of Molecular Communication (MC). Moving beyond traditional digital interfaces, the proposed architecture, comprising in-body, on-chip, and external communication layers, models and processes intercellular signaling via molecular emissions, implantable biosensors, and nano-electronic processors. Theoretical foundations are extended to fractional-order diffusion systems and neuromorphic decoding, capturing complex behaviors in realistic biological environments. We further propose a cross-layer molecular digital twin model for context-aware interpretation and feedback. The framework’s applications are grounded in the molecular underpinnings of emotion, where neurotransmitters like oxytocin and serotonin mediate prosocial behaviors and affective states through cell-to-cell signaling. For instance, remote emotional interfacing leverages MC to modulate oxytocin release, mimicking natural empathy circuits, while consensual telepathy draws from BCI-mediated neural pattern sharing, extending molecular-level decoding to cognitive-emotional relays. These are not mere metaphors but extensions of established neurochemical pathways, as evidenced by recent studies showing serotonin fluctuations amplify context-specific emotions. This work thus bridges cellular mechanisms to higher-order phenomena, ensuring scientific rigor in bio-digital systems .

Molecular communication (MC) has emerged as a promising paradigm for nanoscale information exchange in Internet of Bio-Nano Things (IoBNT) environments, offering intrinsic biocompatibility and potential for real-time in vivo monitoring. This study proposes a cascaded MC channel framework for vascular stenosis detection, which integrates non-Newtonian blood rheology, bell-shaped constriction geometry, and adsorption–desorption dynamics. Path delay and path loss are introduced as quantitative metrics to characterize how structural narrowing and molecular interactions jointly affect signal propagation. On this basis, a peak response time-based delay inversion method is developed to estimate both the location and severity of stenosis. COMSOL 6.2 simulations demonstrate high spatial resolution and resilience to measurement noise across diverse vascular configurations. By linking nanoscale transport dynamics with system-level detection, the approach establishes a tractable pathway for the early identification of vascular anomalies. Beyond theoretical modeling, the framework underscores the translational potential of MC-based diagnostics. It provides a foundation for non-invasive vascular health monitoring in IoT-enabled biomedical systems with direct relevance to continuous screening and preventive cardiovascular care. Future in vitro and in vivo studies will be essential to validate feasibility and support integration with implantable or wearable biosensing devices, enabling real-time, personalized health management.

An analytical comparison of the potential of HS/SPME-GC-MS and HS-GC-IMS for the analysis of bacterial volatile organic compounds.

In the plant kingdom, stress can significantly impact physiological and metabolic processes, leading to growth inhibition, developmental abnormalities, and even mortality. Current detection methods primarily focus on changes in gene expression or observable disease symptoms. However, these approaches are often resource-intensive, costly, and procedurally complex. To overcome these challenges, this study introduces an innovative molecular communication framework for plant stress monitoring. In this framework, plants that release biogenic volatile organic compounds serve as transmitters, receiving plants act as receivers, and the air serves as the propagation channel. The primary objective is to develop a real-time stress detection method by modulating stress types into distinct profiles of biogenic volatile organic compounds. These profiles are transmitted as chemical signals and are demodulated at the receiver. We analyzed the effects of distance, wind speed, and other factors on compound dispersion in the channel, validating the system through simulations and a molecular communication testbed. This research provides an innovative technical approach for real-time plant stress monitoring while establishing a theoretical foundation for enhancing crop management efficiency and advancing precision agriculture.

In this work, we consider a three-dimensional slow diffusive heterogeneous media-based mobile molecular communication (MC) system, with the communicating devices as point transmitters and passive spherical-shaped receiver nanomachines (NMs). For the considered slow diffusive MC system, we propose a time-varying stochastic diffusivity-based model for communicating devices and information-carrying molecules, and we characterize the mobile MC channel by the channel impulse response (CIR) and derive its mean. For the considered slow and stochastic diffusivity-based mobile MC system, we propose a novel silence-based multi-type hybrid transmission scheme, which combines communication through silence (CtS) with molecular shift keying (MoSK) and concentration shift keying (CSK) and we derive the closed-form expression for the average probability of error. For the slow diffusive environment, we compare the proposed transmission scheme with the position and concentration-based run-length aware, MoSK, and CSK transmission schemes. For the proposed silence-based multi-type hybrid and considered position and concentration-based run-length aware transmission schemes, we design their respective optimal threshold detectors. The proposed scheme outperforms and shows robust behavior in the presence of inter-symbol interference.

The decline in mobility with aging is a major health concern, associated with a high risk for disability. Despite the widespread prevalence of gait slowing in elderly adults, this issue has not been adequately addressed. The central nervous system and skeletal muscle system are key regulators of gait speed. However, direct molecular communication along the brain-muscle axis and the role of these interactions in mobility resilience remain poorly studied. Recently, extracellular vesicles (EV), membrane bound vesicles secreted by cells, have emerged as a key player in long distance inter-cellular communication. Nevertheless, the potential of EVs as biological predictor of mobility resilience in older adults has not been yet studied. In the present study, we used serum samples from 23 participants with gait speed >1.0 m/sec (mobility-resilient group) and 22 participants with gait <1.0 m/sec (mobility non-resilient group) from the Health, Aging and Body Composition (Health ABC) study. First, total circulating serum EVs were isolated and characterized for small noncoding RNAs using un-biased small noncoding RNA sequencing. Given the central role of mitochondria in muscle energy metabolism and their emerging link to age-related physical decline, next, muscle-derived EVs (MDE) were isolated and characterized for specific mitochondrial markers (TOM20, mtCox2, PDH, and VDAC) by flow cytometry, the expression of a panel of 13 miRNAs related to mitochondrial function by RT-PCR, and PPAR-γ expression by ELISA. The results showed differential enrichment of various miRNAs, circRNAs, and mitochondrial proteins in total EVs and/or MDE between mobility-resilient and non-resilient groups, highlighting their potential as non-invasive biomarkers for mobility outcomes. Overall, the findings from the present study suggest a role for serum EVs in mediating molecular communication related to functional aging phenotypes and underscores the potential of EV biomarkers in modulating mobility and promoting healthy aging.

Abstract The symbiotic relationship of cnidarians with dinoflagellates of the family Symbiodiniaceae is based on host-symbiont recognition processes and continuous molecular exchange between partners. However, the molecular signals involved are unresolved. Oxylipin signalling plays a pivotal role in mediating various cellular processes, including inflammation and molecular signalling. Its function in the cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis, including its potential role in inter-partner molecular communication, remains unclear. Here, prostaglandin EP2 receptors 2 (EP2) and 4 (EP4) were localised and quantified using immunohistochemistry in the tissues of the coral Acropora sp. aff. tenuis. Both coral larvae and polyps of juvenile colonies were examined when in symbiosis with one of their two native dinoflagellate symbionts, Cladocopium goreaui and Durusdinium trenchii, during early (3 days) and later (30 days) stages of symbiosis establishment (relative to aposymbiotic corals). EP2 and EP4 were present in both the gastrodermis and epidermis of larvae and polyps, regardless of their symbiotic state. Abundance of EP2 and EP4 was affected by symbiotic state, symbiont identity, coral life-stage, and the age of the symbiosis. Specifically, D. trenchii, but not C. goreaui, decreased host EP2 levels in larvae and polyps, and EP4 levels in coral polyps. Conversely, C. goreaui, but not D. trenchii, decreased EP4 levels in coral larvae. This research enhances our understanding of oxylipin pathway regulation in the coral-dinoflagellate symbiosis across various life-stages, and in response to different symbiont species, laying the groundwork for deeper exploration into the molecular signalling mechanisms that underlie this symbiosis and the influence of coral metamorphosis on these mechanisms.

Molecular communication signal detection faces numerous challenges, including complex environments, multi-source noise, and signal drift. Traditional methods rely on precise mathematical models, which are constrained by drift speed and signal-to-noise ratio. To address these issues, this paper proposes an innovative detection model based on the Informer architecture, named ComModel (CModel). This framework integrates probSparse Attention, Cross Attention, and convolutional layers to enhance detection accuracy and adaptability to various environmental conditions. Experimental results demonstrate that CModel consistently outperforms traditional deep neural networks and Transformer-based models, especially in complex scenarios with varying drift speeds and noise levels. As the drift speed increases, CModel maintains superior stability and exhibits lower bit error rates, particularly at medium and high drift speeds. Moreover, CModel shows excellent performance in environments with significant noise. Overall, CModel demonstrates robust and reliable signal detection capabilities in multi-noise environments.

Molecular communication (MC) emerges as an encouraging concept in wireless body area nanonetworks (), which utilizes molecules as information carriers for communication between nanomachines. In this paper, we aim to define an electrical model of a molecular-based nano-transmitter to analyze the effect of the remained transmitted molecules in a fluidic medium. To this end, we will address an advection-diffusion equation with a non-zero initial condition to analyze the residual molecules’ influence the medium. Moreover, considering the energy consumption limitations of nanomachines, we will employ the derived electrical model to further investigate how nanomachines consume the energy in presence of residual molecules. Following this, to enhance the energy consumption of the nano-transmitters, the settle-time method will be proposed to tackle the negative impact of the residual molecules on energy consumption. Nevertheless, since the proposed method increases the delay at nano-transmitters, the energy-delay trade-off relation at nano-transmitters will be investigated. Then, by introducing an interruption period and a control coefficient, we control the trade-off between the energy consumption and the created delay. Finally, by considering insulin molecules as messenger molecules in our simulations, we will demonstrate that implementing short interruption periods significantly enhances energy consumption, while introducing a small amount of delay to the system. Particularly, the energy consumption is reduced by 15% and the latency is increased by 2.2 ms when 1 ms interrupt period is used for 20 mol of insulin molecule.

Insect pests cause severe damage and yield losses to many agricultural crops globally. The use of chemical pesticides on agricultural crops is not recommended because of their toxic effects on the environment and consumers. In addition, pesticide toxicity reduces soil fertility, poisons ground waters, and is hazardous to soil biota. Therefore, applications of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) are an alternative, eco-friendly solution to chemical pesticides and mineral-based fertilizers to enhance plant health and promote sustainable food security. This review focuses on the biological and ecological aspects of these organisms while also highlighting the practical application of molecular communication approaches in developing a novel plant health product. This insight will support this innovative approach that combines PGPR and EPNs for sustainable crop production. Several studies have reported positive interactions between nematodes and bacteria. Although the combined presence of both organisms has been shown to promote plant growth, the molecular interactions between them are still under investigation. Integrating molecular communication studies in the development of a new product could help in understanding their relationships and, in turn, support the combination of these organisms into a single plant health product.

Paricalcitol plus hydroxychloroquine enhances gemcitabine activity and induces mesenchymal to epithelial transition in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: A single cell RNA-seq analysis.

Humankind mimics the processes and strategies that nature has perfected and uses them as a model to address its problems. That has recently found a new direction, i.e., a novel communication technology called molecular communication (MC), which utilizes molecules to encode, transmit, and receive information. Despite the extensive research in the area, an innate MC method with plenty of instances in nature, i.e., olfactory or odor communication, has not been studied with the tools of information and communication technologies (ICT) yet. Existing studies focus on digitizing this sense and developing actuators without inspecting the principles of odor-based information coding and MC, which significantly limits its application potential. Hence, there is a need to focus cross-disciplinary research efforts to reveal the fundamentals of this unconventional communication modality from an ICT perspective. The ways of natural odor MC in nature need to be anatomized and engineered for end-to-end communication among humans and human-made things to enable several multi-sense augmented reality technologies reinforced with olfactory senses for novel applications and solutions in the Internet of Everything (IoE). This paper introduces the concept of odor-based molecular communication (OMC) and provides a comprehensive examination of olfactory systems. It explores odor communication in nature, including aspects of odor information, channels, reception, spatial perception, and cognitive functions. Additionally, a comprehensive comparison of various communication systems sets the foundation for further investigation. By highlighting the unique characteristics, advantages, and potential applications of OMC through this comparative analysis, the paper lays the groundwork for exploring the modeling of an end-to-end OMC channel, considering the design of OMC transmitters and receivers, and developing innovative OMC techniques.

Functional studies of host-microbe interactions benefit from natural model systems that enable the exploration of molecular mechanisms at the host-microbe interface. Bioluminescent Vibrio fischeri colonize the light organ of the Hawaiian bobtail squid, Euprymna scolopes, and this binary model has enabled advances in understanding host-microbe communication, colonization specificity, in vivo biofilms, intraspecific competition, and quorum sensing. The hummingbird bobtail squid, Euprymna berryi, can be generationally bred and maintained in lab settings and has had multiple genes deleted by CRISPR approaches. The prospect of expanding the utility of the light organ model system by producing multigenerational host lines led us to determine the extent to which the E. berryi light organ symbiosis parallels known processes in E. scolopes. However, the nature of the E. berryi light organ, including its microbial constituency and specificity for microbial partners, has not been examined. In this report, we isolated bacteria from E. berryi animals and tank water. Assays of bacterial behaviors required in the host, as well as host responses to bacterial colonization, illustrate largely parallel phenotypes in E. berryi and E. scolopes hatchlings. This study reveals E. berryi to be a valuable comparative model to complement studies in E. scolopes.IMPORTANCEMicrobiome studies have been substantially advanced by model systems that enable functional interrogation of the roles of the partners and the molecular communication between those partners. The Euprymna scolopes-Vibrio fischeri system has contributed foundational knowledge, revealing key roles for bacterial quorum sensing broadly and in animal hosts, for bacteria in stimulating animal development, for bacterial motility in accessing host sites, and for in vivo biofilm formation in development and specificity of an animal's microbiome. Euprymna berryi is a second bobtail squid host, and one that has recently been shown to be robust to laboratory husbandry and amenable to gene knockout. This study identifies E. berryi as a strong symbiosis model host due to features that are conserved with those of E. scolopes, which will enable the extension of functional studies in bobtail squid symbioses.

Communication plays a crucial role in advancing human civilization, yet ensuring the confidentiality and integrity of transmitted signals remains a critical challenge. In this context, DNA represents a paradigm-shifting medium owing to its molecular programmability, ultrahigh information density, and native biocompatibility. Building on these advantages, we integrate lambda exonuclease (Exo λ) to harness DNA's programmability for constructing molecular beacon architectures, enabling precise signal recognition and processing in molecular communication systems. We developed a DNA-based dual-layer encrypted carrier communication system through modular molecular programming, supporting precise signal modulation, demodulation, and secure signal transmission. The system's core innovation is the DNA hairpin locker (DHL), an Exo λ-resistant architecture that dynamically responds to DNA signals while maintaining stable operation (with input/output orthogonality), forming our prototype molecular communication platform. To accommodate diverse modulation needs, we engineered three allosteric DHL variants supporting nine distinct input/output configurations. Additionally, we implemented a binary data-block unit and a codebook translation protocol to enhance security and extensibility. Anti-interference analysis and mitigation strategies ensure a robust system operation. This DHL-based architecture, with its programmable and modular features, provides a reliable molecular communication strategy and shows promising potential for applications in biosensing and synthetic biology.

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a widely cultivated legume crop that can fix nitrogen by forming root nodules with compatible rhizobia. The initiation and formation of these nodules require complex molecular communication between legumes and rhizobia, involving the precise regulation of multiple legume genes. However, the mechanism underlying nodulation in peanuts remains poorly understood. In this study, we identified a gene associated with nodulation in peanuts, named Peanut unique gene for nodulation 1.1 (AhPUGN1.1). Multiple lines of evidence indicate that AhPUGN1.1 is primarily expressed in peanut nodules. Silencing or knocking out AhPUGN1.1 in peanut resulted in fewer nodules, as well as lower fresh weight and nitrogenase activity, while overexpressing AhPUGN1.1 significantly enhanced nodulation ability and nitrogenase activity. Modulating the expression of AhPUGN1.1 also influenced the expression levels of genes associated with the Nod factor signaling pathway and infection via crack entry. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed that AhPUGN1.1 likely regulates peanut nodulation by affecting the expression of genes involved in the cytokinin and calcium signaling pathways. Our data thus show that AhPUGN1.1 acts as a crucial regulator promoting symbiotic nodulation in peanuts.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42994-025-00222-7.

Evidence of interstitial continuity within and beyond the human pancreas.

Cell signalling pathways represent fundamental molecular communication networks that orchestrate cellular functions in development and disease. This comprehensive review examines the intricate landscape of cell signalling mechanisms in Nigerian populations, revealing distinct genetic, environmental, and clinical characteristics that significantly influence pathway behaviours and disease manifestations.Through a systematic literature review, we analysed major signalling pathways, including Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK), G-Protein-Coupled Receptor (GPCR), JAK-STAT, Wnt, Notch, and Hedgehog signalling, across both developmental and pathological contexts. Our investigation uncovered population-specific variations that profoundly impact disease susceptibility, progression, and treatment responses in Nigerian healthcare settings.Key findings demonstrate that Nigerian populations exhibit unique alterations in signalling pathways driven by genetic polymorphisms, endemic infectious disease exposures, and environmental factors. Developmental signalling mechanisms revealed distinctive patterns of embryonic development, neural patterning, and stem cell regulation. In disease contexts, significant molecular variations were observed in cancer, metabolic disorders, inflammatory conditions, neurodegenerative diseases, and cardiovascular disorders.The research highlights critical challenges in implementing signalling-targeted therapies, including infrastructure limitations, economic constraints, and regulatory complexities. Additionally, traditional Nigerian medicinal approaches offer promising complementary insights into the modulation of signalling pathways.This review establishes a comprehensive framework for understanding cell signalling pathways in Nigerian populations, emphasising the importance of contextually specific molecular research. The findings provide essential guidance for developing precision medicine approaches tailored to local genetic and environmental contexts, ultimately supporting more effective disease prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies.