Feedstock Moisture Content Research Articles

A semi-empirical approach towards predicting producer gas composition in biomass gasification

The paper provides a comparison of five distinct models, often used in thermodynamic equilibrium modeling that allows the study of feedstock effect on gasification process. The five models were thus formulated and solved using MATLAB software. The results were compared with published experimental data. The model based on equilibrium constant derived using methane formation reaction and water gas shift reaction showed comparatively better performance. Once the model was selected, the response surface analysis was employed to predict the parameters, such as reactor temperature and feedstock moisture content, for a maximum heating value of the producer gas. Simulations were performed for 50 different biomass feedstocks and simplified correlations were developed from simulated producer gas composition using multiple linear regression. These correlations may be suited for the quick comparison of different feedstocks in gasification process.

Correlations between the physicochemical properties of hydrochar and specific components of waste lettuce: Influence of moisture, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids

This study aims to figure out the influence of moisture content and chemical constitution, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, of waste lettuce on the physicochemical structure of hydrochar produced via hydrothermal carbonization. The experimental results showed that homogenized carbon material can be obtained by hydrothermal treatment, regardless of the moisture content of feedstock. During the hydrothermal carbonization process of waste lettuce, carbohydrates were the most active reactants contributing to hydrochar formation. Meanwhile, Maillard reaction between proteins and carbohydrates occurred, which promoted the aromatization of the organic intermediates and increased the relative content of nitrogenous heterocyclic functional groups on the surface of hydrochar from 10.7 to 18.7%. Different from these two constitution, lipids did not participate in the carbonization reaction, the main hydrolyzates of lipids were adsorbed to the surface of hydrochar, leading to an increase in the mass of solid products.

Pretreatment with lower feed moisture and lower extrusion temperatures aids in the increase in the fermentable sugar yields from fine-milled Douglas-fir

The impact of independent variables of extrusion on dependent variables of pre-milled Douglas-fir forest residuals was studied to enhance the enzymatic hydrolysis for production of fermentable sugar without catalysts. Co-rotating twin screw extruder was operated with three different feedstock moisture contents (30, 40, and 50%) at four different barrel temperatures (25, 50, 100, and 150 °C) as a pretreatment. The specific mechanical energy input ranged from 0.07 and 0.30 kWh/kg and had a very strong positive correlation with torque (r = 0.96, p < 0.01), glucose (r = 0.92, p < 0.01) and xylose/mannose yields with (r = 0.84, p < 0.01). Douglas-fir residuals extruded at lowest moisture content (30%) and temperature (25 °C) had the highest sugar yield, requiring the highest SME. Higher barrel temperature increased the median particle size and had lower glucose and xylose/mannose yields. Recrystallization and agglomeration were observed under higher temperature conditions.

Comparison of thermophilic anaerobic and aerobic treatment processes for stabilization of green and food wastes and production of soil amendments

The management of organic wastes is an environmental and social priority. Aerobic digestion (AED) or composting and anaerobic digestion (AD) are two organic waste management practices that produce a value-added final product. Few side-by-side comparisons of both technologies and their digestate products have been performed. The objective of this study was to compare the impact of initial feedstock properties (moisture content and/or C/N ratio) on stabilization rate by AED and AD and soil amendment characteristics of the final products. Green and food wastes were considered as they are two of the main contributors to municipal organic waste. Stabilization rate was assessed by measurement of CH4 and CO2 evolution for AD and AED, respectively. For AD, CH4 yield showed a second-order relationship with the C/N content (P < 0.05); the optimal C/N ratio indicated by the relationship was 25.5. For AED, cumulative CO2 evolution values were significantly affected by the C/N ratio and moisture content of the initial feedstock (P < 0.05). A response surface model showed optimal AED stabilization for a C/N of 25.6 and moisture of 64.9% (wet basis). AD final products presented lower soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) but lower humification degree and aromaticity than the products from AED. This lower stability may lead to further degradation when amended to soil. The results suggest that composting feedstocks with higher C/N produces an end-product with higher suitability for soil amendment. The instability of end products from AD could be leveraged in pest control techniques that rely on organic matter degradation to produce compounds with pesticidal properties.

An extractor for unloading the wet biomass stored in silo-bag

The storage of wet biomass can produce some problems when the biomass is emptied from silo-bags. Its extreme compactness and adhesion to the extractor cause clogging and product loss. Despite the importance of such an operation, the problem of silo-bag emptying has been addressed only rarely. This paper describes a new prototype of extractor designed for unloading the wet biomass from silo-bags. The machine was tested on silo-bags (of a capacity of around 200 t) filled with corn silage stored for two months. The study analyzed the qualitative parameters of the feedstock (density, moisture content, and particle size distribution), and the performance of the extractor in working conditions at three forward speeds (14.4, 18.0, and 21.6 m h−1). The extraction capacity of the machine proved comparable at the three speeds, but the maximum value (38.5 kg cm−1) was achieved at 18.0 m h−1. This speed, however, resulted in some clogging problems which caused a reduction in the working time (23.5%). Overall, the productivity proved satisfactory, ranging from 50.5 (at a forward speed of 14.4 m h−1) to 82.6 t h−1 (at a forward speed of 21.6 m h−1), while the material losses caused by the mechanical action of the extractor were low (0.09% w/w).

EXPERIMENTAL AND MODELING STUDIES OF VIETNAM LEMONGRASS ESSENTIAL OIL EXTRACTION PROCESS USING RESPONSE SURFACE METHODOLOGY

Natural precious products such as aroma compounds, essential oils, and bio-activated materials are usually extracted from about 30,000 botanical species. These extracts are often high competitive market due to their small content (less than 1 %) in plants and high purification cost. Thus, development of a modeling for the optimization of the crude oil extraction is highly paid attention. In this work, a modeling of Vietnam lemongrass oil extraction using steam distillation is developed and the optimization of the process parameters is performed using response surface methodology (RSM). The operating parameters considered for the modeling and optimization are specific area of raw materials, moisture content of feedstock, and steam rate. Experimental data show that the oil yield from steam distillation of Vietnam lemongrass is significantly affected by the three mentioned factors. Box-Behnken design (BBD) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) are used to examine the effects of operating parameters on the extraction efficiency. On the basis of the measurements and RSM, a quadric regression model as a function of steam rate, specific area and moisture content of materials is estimated. The optimized operating conditions of the lemongrass hydrodistillation are also obtained by applying the proposed modeling.

Life cycle assessment of combined bioheat and biopower production: An eco-design approach

Life cycle assessment (LCA) can be conducted in coordination with a process simulation and used as an eco-design (green design) tool by quantifying the relations between eco-design parameters and environmental impact categories. The purpose of this article is to minimize environmental life cycle impacts of combined bioheat and biopower (CBHBP) production at its design stage, and thereby ensure sustainable CBHBP production. In this study, the aim is to conduct an LCA study in coordination with a process simulation and introduce an eco-design approach to determine the environmental sustainability of a combustion-based in situ CBHBP plant based on a simulated case study. Eco-design approach in this study enabled to quantify the effect of changes in feedstock moisture content, excess air ratio, and furnace temperature on the selected LCA results (based on the contribution analysis performed) for the simulated CBHBP case study. Feedstock supply chain is the stage most affected by increases in moisture content due to the consequent higher transportation requirements. For example, increasing moisture content from 30% to 50% causes about an 18% increase in global warming (GW). Excess air ratio and furnace temperature affected the importance of CBHBP plant operation mostly due to nitrogen oxides (NOx) emission increases. As an example, the higher increases in eutrophication (ETR) (∼56%) and acidification (ACD) (∼17%) are observed between the excess air ratios of 1.2 and 1.5. In addition, with increasing furnace temperature, high increases occur in mainly ETR and then ACD. For instance, an increase from 900 to 1000○C increases ETR ∼78%; an increase from 1100 to 1200○C increases ACD ∼38%. The methodology proposed here can be applied to any system for a better environmental performance. The study ultimately incorporates a biorefinery concept intended to advance the building of a bio-based (low carbon) economy.

Effect of pellet die diameter on density and durability of pellets made from high moisture woody and herbaceous biomass

Densified products produced from pellet mill are commercially used as a commodity type product for energy applications that are transported nationally and internationally. The quality of the pelletized biomass produced depends on the process variables such as die diameter, length to diameter (L/D) ratio, die speed, preheating, and steam conditioning; and feedstock variables such as feedstock type, moisture content, and particle size and shape. In the present study, pelleting tests were conducted with both woody (i.e., lodgepole pine and pinyon-juniper) and herbaceous (i.e., corn stover, wheat straw, and energy sorghum) biomass. A high level of feedstock moisture content of 33% (w.b.) was selected, while the die speed and preheating temperature process variables were kept at 60 Hz (380 rpm) and 70 °C. Results indicated that during the pelleting and cooling process, an approximate 10–13% (w.b.) moisture loss in both the woody and herbaceous biomass was observed. The high moisture pellets produced were further dried in a laboratory oven at 70 °C for three hours to reduce the moisture content of the pellets to <10% (w.b). The dried pellets were then evaluated further for other quality attributes including unit, bulk, and tapped density; and durability. The pellets that resulted in the highest unit, bulk, and tapped densities following this process were the herbaceous biomass corn stover (e.g., >1133, >580, >620 kg/m3) and the woody biomass lodgepole pine (e.g., >1037, >568, >641 kg/m3), respectively. In the case of durability for the 8 mm diameter pellets, wheat straw and corn stover recorded a maximum of about 96%, respectively, while the lodgepole pine and pinion juniper recorded a maximum of >96%, respectively.

Optimization of granular waste production based on mechanical properties

Pellet production of food and agricultural wastes is a suitable method to supply livestock feed. Mechanical properties of pellets play an important role in their handling and transportation. In this study, the mechanical properties of pellets made from waste are investigated. After the pelleting process, the pellets were dried with a laboratory convective hot air dryer until reaching a safe moisture content. The effects of feedstock moisture content (0.54, 0.88, and 1.2 kgw kgDM−1), particle size (PS < 0.4, 0.4 < PS<1.2, and 1.2 < PS<2 mm), drying temperature (318, 333, and 348 K) and infrared radiation power of the dryer (0, 500, and 1000 W) on pellet durability, impact resistance, and compressive strength were investigated for two diets. The results showed that the mechanical properties of the pellets increased with decreasing particle size of the raw materials. The feedstock moisture content also affected the durability, impact resistant, and compressive strength of pellets. Moreover, mechanical properties were reduced considerably when the pellets were dried at a high temperature and infrared power. The diet with a lower fat content as well as a lower neutral detergent fiber indicated a higher pellet quality. Furthermore, the combination of raw materials and optimization of pelleting and drying conditions had a significant effect on the quality of the produced pellets.

Slow pyrolysis of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW): Characterisation of products and screening of the aqueous liquid product for anaerobic digestion

A comprehensive study of the energy yield from slow pyrolysis of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) and energy recovery from the aqueous liquid product by anaerobic digestion has been carried out. In this paper, the results of the liquid pyrolysis product characterisation are presented, with toxicity and methane potential assessments of the aqueous liquid product. The OFMSW feedstock was obtained from a UK waste treatment plant. Shredded samples dried to different moisture contents (12.7–45.8%) were processed in a 300 g per hour auger screw pyrolysis reactor at temperatures from 450 to 850 °C. Sixteen pyrolysis runs were performed, with process mass balance closures above 90% obtained (wet feed basis). Pyrolysis liquids showed clear phase separation under gravity. With increasing processing temperature, the liquid yield (both organic and aqueous fraction) reduced but the gas yield increased. An investigation into the product energy distribution indicated that processing temperature had a strong effect on the product energy distribution, while the effect of feedstock moisture was relatively small. Batch anaerobic testing of the aqueous fraction showed that toxicity increased with pyrolysis processing temperature and decreased with feedstock moisture content. Statistical analysis confirmed that the pyrolysis processing temperature was the dominant factor affecting the toxicity of the aqueous product. Careful acclimatisation of the microbial consortium to the applied substrate and loading is likely to be necessary for improved digestion of the aqueous fraction.

Demonstration of a Pilot-Scale Plant for Biomass Torrefaction and Briquetting

Abstract. A semi-mobile torrefaction and densification pilot plant was constructed in order to determine ideal operating conditions and evaluate briquette quality and throughput rate using forest residuals as the input feedstock. Experiments were conducted at various conditions with feedstock moisture content ranging from 4% to 25% (wet basis), reactor residence times of 10 and 20 min, and final product temperatures between 214°C and 324°C. Optimal operating conditions, evaluated based on throughput rate, specific electricity demand, torrefied briquette grindability, briquette volumetric energy density, and briquette durability, were identified to occur with a short residence time (10 min), low feedstock moisture content (&amp;lt;11% wet basis), and high final product temperature between 267°C and 275°C. These conditions were able to process 510 to 680 kg h-1 (wet basis) feedstock with a dry mass yield of 79% to 84% to produce torrefied biomass with a higher heating value of 21.2 to 23.0 MJ kg-1 (dry basis) compared to 19.6 MJ kg-1 for the original biomass. Torrefied briquettes produced at these conditions had a neatly stacked packing density of 990 kg m-3 and a volumetric energy density of 21,800 MJ m-3. Their specific grinding energy was an average 37% of the energy required to grind a raw biomass briquette. These torrefied briquettes were more durable (94% DU) than raw briquettes (85% DU) directly following production, but were less durable after undergoing temperature and humidity fluctuations associated with long distance transportation (74% DU for torrefied and 84% DU for raw biomass briquettes). Results from this pilot plant are promising for commercial scale production of high quality torrefied briquettes and should lead to additional research and development of a torrefaction system optimized for a higher throughput rate at these conditions. Keywords: Biomass, Biomass conversion technology, Bioenergy, Briquetting, Densification, Forest residuals, Pyrolysis, Torrefaction.

Pilot scale evaluation of fuel pellets production from garden waste biomass

Pelletization of garden waste, without additional binder, was investigated to produce high quality fuel pellets for energy utilization. The influence of pelletization parameters viz. feedstock moisture content (5, 15, 25, and 35%), milling size (25.4 and 6.25mm) and die size (12 and 15mm) on pellet quality and pelletization process was studied. The results showed that the studied parameters had significant effect on pellet quality. A reduction in average durability value (95.0% to 92.5%) was observed when moisture content of garden waste increased from 5% to 15%. Appropriate regression models were also developed for each quality attribute by using multiple linear regressions. Eventually, a feedstock moisture content of 5±1%, milling size of 6.35mm and die size of 15mm were found to offer standard quality pellets with optimum throughput capacity. Scanning electron microscopy image analysis showed a closer agglomeration of biomass particles when feed materials were pelletized at low moisture content. The equilibrium moisture content due to adsorption for garden waste pellet was found to be 14.6% which was quite low as compared to other feedstocks. Furthermore, we deduced from the combustion test that garden waste pellets may be conveniently used in a residential cookstove. In a nutshell, pelletization of garden waste biomass has been demonstrated at pilot scale in this study.

How does technology pathway choice influence economic viability and environmental impacts of lignocellulosic biorefineries?

BackgroundThe need for liquid fuels in the transportation sector is increasing, and it is essential to develop industrially sustainable processes that simultaneously address the tri-fold sustainability metrics of technological feasibility, economic viability, and environmental impacts. Biorefineries based on lignocellulosic feedstocks could yield high-value products such as ethyl acetate, dodecane, ethylene, and hexane. This work focuses on assessing biochemical and biomass to electricity platforms for conversion of Banagrass and Energycane into valuable fuels and chemicals using the tri-fold sustainability metrics.ResultsThe production cost of various products produced from Banagrass was $1.19/kg ethanol, $1.00/kg ethyl acetate, $3.01/kg dodecane (jet fuel equivalent), $2.34/kg ethylene and $0.32/kW-h electricity. The production cost of different products using Energycane as a feedstock was $1.31/kg ethanol, $1.11/kg ethyl acetate, $3.35/kg dodecane, and $2.62/kg ethylene. The sensitivity analysis revealed that the price of the main product, feedstock cost and cost of ethanol affected the profitability the overall process. Banagrass yielded 11% higher ethanol compared to Energycane, which could be attributed to the differences in the composition of these lignocellulosic biomass sources. Acidification potential was highest when ethylene was produced at the rate of 2.56 × 10−2 and 1.71 × 10−2 kg SO2 eq. for Banagrass and Energycane, respectively. Ethanol production from Banagrass and Energycane resulted in a global warming potential of − 12.3 and − 40.0 g CO2 eq./kg ethanol.ConclusionsUtilizing hexoses and pentoses from Banagrass to produce ethyl acetate was the most economical scenario with a payback period of 11.2 years and an ROI of 8.93%, respectively. Electricity production was the most unprofitable scenario with an ROI of − 29.6% using Banagrass/Energycane as a feedstock that could be attributed to high feedstock moisture content. Producing ethylene or dodecane from either of the feedstocks was not economical. The moisture content and composition of biomasses affected overall economics of the various pathways studied. Producing ethanol and ethyl acetate from Energycane had a global warming potential of − 3.01 kg CO2 eq./kg ethyl acetate.

Biomass gasification for syngas and biochar co-production: Energy application and economic evaluation

Syngas and biochar are two main products from biomass gasification. To facilitate the optimization of the energy efficiency and economic viability of gasification systems, a comprehensive fixed-bed gasification model has been developed to predict the product rate and quality of both biochar and syngas. A coupled transient representative particle and fix-bed model was developed to describe the entire fixed-bed in the flow direction of primary air. A three-region approach has been incorporated into the model, which divided the reactor into three regions in terms of different fluid velocity profiles, i.e. natural convection region, mixed convection region, and forced convection region, respectively. The model could provide accurate predictions against experimental data with a deviation generally smaller than 10%. The model is applicable for efficient analysis of fixed-bed biomass gasification under variable operating conditions, such as equivalence ratio, moisture content of feedstock, and air inlet location. The optimal equivalence ratio was found to be 0.25 for maximizing the economic benefits of the gasification process.

Economic implications of grinding, transporting, and pretreating fresh versus aged forest residues for biofuel production

The moisture content in forest harvest residues is a key factor affecting the supply cost for bioenergy production. Fresh harvest residues tend to contain higher amounts of water, thus making transportation inefficient. Additionally, fresh harvest residues contain greater amounts of needles and bark that may reduce the polysaccharide content, thus affecting the production of liquid fuels derived from cellulosic components. In this study, we estimated the downstream economic effect in the supply chain of collecting, grinding, transporting and pretreating fresh versus aged residues. Specifically, we analyzed the effect of feedstock moisture content on grinder fuel consumption, bulk density, bark and needle content, and polysaccharide proportion. Fresh forest harvest residues were 60% moisture content (wet basis) and aged forest residues were 15% moisture content. The bark and needle proportion is 6.1% higher in fresh residue than in aged residue. Polysaccharides were 26% higher in aged residue than in fresh residue. On a dry-tonne basis, the cost of grinding fresh residues was about the same as that of aged residues. However, considering the difference in bulk density on transportation cost and the difference in polysaccharide yield, the value gain for in-field drying ranges from US$29.60 to US$74.90 per ovendry tonne.

New tool for improved control of sub-process interactions in rotating ring die pelletizing of torrefied biomass

A new concept was developed for feed layer formation control and to obtain continuous pellet production when pelletizing torrefied biomass. The materials pelletized were softwood forest residues and a hardwood species which both had been torrefied at 308°C for 9min. The torrefied wood chips were milled over a screen size of 6mm and the torrefied feedstock moisture content was adjusted to about 9% before pelletizing. Two types of pelletizers were used; one with a stationary ring die and one with a rotating ring die. With a traditional, non-cooled die configuration, the die temperature increased to 75–78°C. During temperature increment, pellet production deteriorated and finally ceased at approximately 80°C. This phenomenon was caused by a breakdown of the feed-layer formation between the free rolling rollers and the die. However, continuous production could be sustained when the die was cooled. A new tool was developed based on nozzle injection of water directly onto the feed layer. By this course of action pellet production was sustained at temperatures well above 80°C. This proof-of-concept for a new tool to control sub-process interactions in ring die pelletizing also includes use of low initial moisture content to utilize the flowability of torrefied particulates and, thus, avoid problems connected to feeding, conveying and silo discharging which frequently occurs at higher feedstock moisture contents.

Operating parameters affecting the thermal performance of biomass boilers

Operating data of a bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) boiler and three stoker grate (SG) biomass boilers from different pulp mills were analyzed over a 2-year period. The results show that in all cases, the thermal performance decreases markedly from 5.5 to 4 lb steam/lb dry biomass as the feedstock moisture content increases from 40% to 60%. The BFB boiler had better thermal performance, although it operated in a higher moisture content range compared with the SG boilers. Multivariate analysis was also performed on one of the SG boilers to determine operating parameters that affect thermal performance. The results show that furnace temperature, oil flow rate, and induced draft fan current positively correlate with thermal performance, while the feedstock moisture content, total air flow, and excess oxygen (O2) negatively correlate with thermal performance. This implies that when making modifications to improve thermal performance, it is important to take into account correlations among various parameters. In some cases, one positively correlated parameter might cause an increase in a negatively correlated parameter. The net effect might be a decrease in thermal performance.

Estimation of Moisture Content of Oil Palm Fronds through Correlation with Density for the Process of Gasification

In the gasification process, one prominent factor that affects the quality of the resulting syngas is the moisture content of the biomass feedstock. Determining the moisture content of a feedstock is considered to be one of the challenges of the process. The information about moisture content of a feedstock is required to decide the need for further drying prior to the gasification process. In this study, a novel method was developed for the evaluation of the moisture content from density of oil palm fronds (OPF) in a sufficiently accurate manner for gasification process. A total of 147 samples from different sections of freshly pruned fronds were prepared. The density of each of the samples was determined from its weight and volume. A fine sand displacement method, using fine sand and a graduated cylinder, determined the volume of OPF. The moisture content of the OPF was determined from the weight difference of the samples before and after the drying process. The experiment implied a good correlation between moisture content and density of the biomass, in which the square of the correlation coefficient (R2) value was found to be satisfactory.

Method to Produce Durable Pellets at Lower Energy Consumption Using High Moisture Corn Stover and a Corn Starch Binder in a Flat Die Pellet Mill

A major challenge in the production of pellets is the high cost associated with drying biomass from 30 to 10% (w.b.) moisture content. At Idaho National Laboratory, a high-moisture pelleting process was developed to reduce the drying cost. In this process the biomass pellets are produced at higher feedstock moisture contents than conventional methods, and the high moisture pellets produced are further dried in energy efficient dryers. This process helps to reduce the feedstock moisture content by about 5-10% during pelleting, which is mainly due to frictional heat developed in the die. The objective of this research was to explore how binder addition influences the pellet quality and energy consumption of the high-moisture pelleting process in a flat die pellet mill. In the present study, raw corn stover was pelleted at moistures of 33, 36, and 39% (w.b.) by addition of 0, 2, and 4% pure corn starch. The partially dried pellets produced were further dried in a laboratory oven at 70 °C for 3-4 hr to lower the pellet moisture to less than 9% (w.b.). The high moisture and dried pellets were evaluated for their physical properties, such as bulk density and durability. The results indicated that increasing the binder percentage to 4% improved pellet durability and reduced the specific energy consumption by 20-40% compared to pellets with no binder. At higher binder addition (4%), the reduction in feedstock moisture during pelleting was <4%, whereas the reduction was about 7-8% without the binder. With 4% binder and 33% (w.b.) feedstock moisture content, the bulk density and durability values observed of the dried pellets were >510 kg/m3 and >98%, respectively, and the percent fine particles generated was reduced to <3%.

Method to Produce Durable Pellets at Lower Energy Consumption Using High Moisture Corn Stover and a Corn Starch Binder in a Flat Die Pellet Mill.

A major challenge in the production of pellets is the high cost associated with drying biomass from 30 to 10% (w.b.) moisture content. At Idaho National Laboratory, a high-moisture pelleting process was developed to reduce the drying cost. In this process the biomass pellets are produced at higher feedstock moisture contents than conventional methods, and the high moisture pellets produced are further dried in energy efficient dryers. This process helps to reduce the feedstock moisture content by about 5-10% during pelleting, which is mainly due to frictional heat developed in the die. The objective of this research was to explore how binder addition influences the pellet quality and energy consumption of the high-moisture pelleting process in a flat die pellet mill. In the present study, raw corn stover was pelleted at moistures of 33, 36, and 39% (w.b.) by addition of 0, 2, and 4% pure corn starch. The partially dried pellets produced were further dried in a laboratory oven at 70 °C for 3-4 hr to lower the pellet moisture to less than 9% (w.b.). The high moisture and dried pellets were evaluated for their physical properties, such as bulk density and durability. The results indicated that increasing the binder percentage to 4% improved pellet durability and reduced the specific energy consumption by 20-40% compared to pellets with no binder. At higher binder addition (4%), the reduction in feedstock moisture during pelleting was <4%, whereas the reduction was about 7-8% without the binder. With 4% binder and 33% (w.b.) feedstock moisture content, the bulk density and durability values observed of the dried pellets were >510 kg/m3 and >98%, respectively, and the percent fine particles generated was reduced to <3%.