Modular Three-dimensional Finite-difference Ground-water Flow Research Articles

Simulation of coupled groundwater flow and contaminant transport using quintic B-spline collocation method

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to introduce a new numerical scheme with no stability condition and high-order accuracy for the solution of two-dimensional coupled groundwater flow and transport simulation problems with regular and irregular geometries and compare the results with widely acceptable programs such as Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Ground-Water Flow Model (MODFLOW) and Modular Three-Dimensional Multispecies Transport Model (MT3DMS).Design/methodology/approachThe newly proposed numerical scheme is based on the method of lines (MOL) approach and uses high-order approximations both in space and time. Quintic B-spline (QBS) functions are used in space to transform partial differential equations, representing the relevant physical phenomena in the system of ordinary differential equations. Then this system is solved with the DOPRI5 algorithm that requires no stability condition. The obtained results are compared with the results of the MODFLOW and MT3DMS programs to verify the accuracy of the proposed scheme.FindingsThe results indicate that the proposed numerical scheme can successfully simulate the two-dimensional coupled groundwater flow and transport problems with complex geometry and parameter structures. All the results are in good agreement with the reference solutions.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors' knowledge, the QBS-DOPRI5 method is used for the first time for solving two-dimensional coupled groundwater flow and transport problems with complex geometries and can be extended to high-dimensional problems. In the future, considering the success of the proposed numerical scheme, it can be used successfully for the identification of groundwater contaminant source characteristics.

An Investigation of Recharging Groundwater Levels through River Ponding: New Strategy for Water Management in Sutlej River

Groundwater is an essential water resource in the current era, and studying its sustainability and management is highly necessary nowadays. In the current area of research interest, the reduced mean annual Sutlej River flow, the increase in the population/built-up areas, and enhanced groundwater abstractions have reduced groundwater recharge. To address this issue, groundwater recharge modeling through ponding of the Sutlej River was carried out using a modular three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model (MODFLOW) in a 400 km2 area adjacent to Sutlej River. The mean historical water table decline rate in the study area is 139 mm/year. The population and urbanization rates have increased by 2.23 and 1.62% per year in the last 8 years. Domestic and agricultural groundwater abstraction are increasing by 1.15–1.30% per year. Abstraction from wells and recharge from the river, the Fordwah Canal, and rainfall were modeled in MODFLOW, which was calibrated and validated using observed data for 3 years. The model results show that the study area’s average water table depletion rate will be 201 mm/year for 20 years. The model was re-run for this scenario, providing river ponding levels of 148–151 m. The model results depict that the water table adjacent to the river will rise by 3–5 m, and average water table depletion is expected to be reduced to 151 to 95 mm/year. The model results reveal that for ponding levels of 148–151 m, storage capacity varies from 26.5–153 Mm3, contributing a recharge of 7.91–12.50 million gallons per day (MGD), and benefiting a 27,650–32,100-acre area; this means that for areas benefitted by dam recharge, the groundwater abstraction rate will remain sustainable for more than 50 years, and for the overall study area, it will remain sustainable for 7–12.3 years. Considering the current water balance, a recharging mechanism, i.e., ponding in the river through the dam, is recommended for sustainable groundwater abstraction.

A Dynamic Modeling Approach to Predict Water Inflow during Karst Tunnel Excavation

During tunnel construction in strongly developed karst terrain, water inrush hazards often occur due to the complex hydrogeological conditions, which require accurate prediction of water inflow. In this study, a dynamic modeling approach for water inflow prediction of karst tunnels using the conduit flow process (CFP) is developed that considers both karst duality and changing boundary conditions of the tunnel. The CFP model has a good agreement with field-observed hydraulic head after calibration, and the Nash–Sutcliffe model efficiency (NSE) for the CFP model is 97.3%. Numerical calculation of water inflow was conducted in a successive drilling scenario with permeability change of the surrounding rocks. Additionally, a modular three-dimensional finite-difference ground-water flow model (MODFLOW) has been applied to predict the water inflow, for comparison with the CFP model. The prediction results obtained from the CFP model are generally in close agreement with the field-observed results; the percentage errors were 13.3% and 5.4%, respectively. For the MODFLOW model, the percentage errors were 34.2% and 36.8%, respectively. The proposed CFP model is both closer to reality and more reasonable than the MODFLOW model in predictive analysis of water inflow into karst tunnels, reflecting the influence of karst conduits on the water inflow process.

Flood Control and Aquifer Recharge Effects of Sponge City: A Case Study in North China

Sponge City is an integrated urban stormwater management approach and practice to tackle waterlogging, flooding, water scarcity, and their related problems. Despite many positive effects of Sponge City on flood control that have been investigated and revealed, the effect on aquifer recharge is still less known. Considering maximizing the function of natural elements such as surface water bodies and subsurface storage space, to minimize the use of a gray drainage system, a Sponge City design was proposed to substitute the planning development scheme in the study area. The stormwater management model of SWMM (storm water management model) and the groundwater flow model of MODFlow (Modular Three-dimensional Finite-difference Groundwater Flow Model) were adopted to evaluate the flood-control effect and aquifer-recharge effect, respectively. Compared with the traditional planning scenario, the peak runoff is approximately 92% less than that under the traditional planning scenario under the condition of a 5-year return period. Due to the increase in impervious areas of urban construction, the total aquifer recharge from precipitation and surface water bodies was decreased both in the present planning scenario and the Sponge City design scenario. However, the Sponge City design has a positive impact on maintaining groundwater level stabilization and even raises the groundwater level in some specific areas where stormwater seepage infrastructure is located.

Can Groundwater Scenarios Be Predicted from Future Regional Climatic Input Variables?

Conjunctive use of water is an integral part of water resources management. Future groundwater scenarios will dictate the water management policies. The present research focuses on future groundwater scenario generation based on regional scale CMIP5 data. The future scenarios for the years 2030, 2050 and 2080 were generated in terms of the groundwater potential zones (GWPZs) with seven futuristic parameters [land use and land cover, maximum temperature, minimum temperature, rainfall, groundwater recharge, groundwater table and evapotranspiration (ET)]. The Dyna-CLUE and MIROC5 were used for generation of the future change in climate and land use/land cover scenarios. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was utilized for the recharge and ET estimation. Future groundwater heads were calculated by using the Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Groundwater Flow (MODFLOW). Bias corrected rainfall and temperature data of Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP 4.5) were utilized. Total twelve water quality parameters (pH, Cl−, Mg2+, F−, Na+, EC, TH, HCO3−, K+, Ca2+, SO42− and PO42−) were used for groundwater quality zone (GWQZ) mapping. These GWPZ and GWQZ were divided into three (poor potential, moderate potential, and good potential) and four zones (good quality, moderate quality, poor quality and above permissible limit) respectively. The lower part of the basin was identified as poor GWPZ (35.76% for 2030) and GWQZ due to an increase in urban areas. However, the middle and upstream portion covers good, moderate zones. Field-based soil moisture and groundwater level monitoring data were utilized for validation purposes. It was observed that groundwater level < 5 m bgl corresponds to good GWPZ. It was also observed that recharge and pH were the crucial parameters for good GWPZ (+11.83%) and GWQZ (−21.31%) according to sensitivity analysis.

Evaluating the Impacts of Pumping on Aquifer Depletion in Arid Regions Using MODFLOW, ANFIS and ANN

In arid regions, the groundwater drawdown consistently increases, and even for a constant pumping rate, long-term predictions remain a challenge. The present research applies the modular three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow (MODFLOW) model to a unique aquifer facing challenges of undefined boundary conditions. Artificial neural networks (ANN) and adaptive neuro fuzzy inference systems (ANFIS) have also been investigated for predicting groundwater levels in the aquifer. A framework is developed for evaluating the impact of various scenarios of groundwater pumping on aquifer depletion. A new code in MATLAB was written for predictions of aquifer depletion using ANN/ANFIS. The geotechnical, meteorological, and hydrological data, including discharge and groundwater levels from 1980 to 2018 for wells in Qassim, were collected from the ministry concerned. The Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency and mean square error examined the performance of the models. The study found that the existing pumping rates can result in an alarming drawdown of 105 m in the next 50 years. Appropriate water conservation strategies for maintaining the existing pumping rate can reduce the impact on aquifer depletion by 33%.

Determining hydrogeological parameters of an aquifer in Sirjan Basin using Envisat ASAR interferometry and groundwater modelling

ABSTRACT Excessive groundwater exploitation in Sirjan plain, located in south of Iran, has caused severe land subsidence. The main purpose of this paper is to determine the hydrogeological parameters of the aquifer system in Sirjan plain. To this end, the groundwater flow was simulated in both steady and transient states using the United States Geological Survey Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Groundwater Flow Model, MODFLOW. The hydraulic conductivity parameter of the aquifer system was first estimated and calibrated in the steady state by simulating the hydraulic head at 63 piezometric wells. The specific yield and recharge parameters were then calibrated in the transient state by simulating the drawdown within a period of interest, i.e. 23 September 2004 to 22 September 2005. The main innovation of this paper, however, is to use the potential of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry time-series analysis in the last step of the proposed algorithm. Small Baseline Subset (SBAS) time-series analysis was applied using Envisat Advanced SAR (ASAR) images acquired from 1 June 2004 to 28 September 2010. The merit of SBAS time series is that it enables us to calculate the amount of subsidence in each period of interest while minimizing the temporal decorrelation effect. In the last step, the SBAS time-series analysis results were obtained to extract the accumulated subsidence from 19 October 2004 to 30 August 2005. The aquifer compaction due to this period was calculated in the Interbed Storage Package (IBS1) for MODFLOW in order to calibrate storage coefficient in a trial-and-error manner so as the calculated subsidence and the observed one by SAR interferometry be in a good agreement. The Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) between the simulated subsidence and the observed one is calculated as 0.019 m which is an indication of the high performance of modelling.

Analysis of spatio-temporal variability of surface–groundwater interactions in the Gharehsoo river basin, Iran, using a coupled SWAT-MODFLOW model

Although groundwater and surface water are often treated as individual water compartments in hydrological cycle studies, they essentially originate from one source. Such a split approach restricts the optimal usages of these water resources in several water management applications. The present study aims to shed light on the complex interaction of surface–groundwater interactions in terms of groundwater recharge from drainage network towards the adjacent aquafer and conversely, groundwater discharge from the aquifer towards the drainage network in the Gharehsoo River Basin (GRB), with the enclosed Ardabil aquifer, located in northwest Iran. To that end, the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), as the surface hydrological model was fully coupled with the latest version of the Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Groundwater Flow (MODFLOW-NWT) (Newton–Raphson Technique to improve the solutions of unconfined groundwater-flow problems). The total study period, i.e. 1978–2012 was split into two intervals for calibration (1988–2012) and validation (1978–1987). To facilitate and expedite the calibration of the coupled model, first we calibrated SWAT and MODFLOW-NWT independently against the observed streamflow and groundwater head time series, respectively. Afterwards, we recalibrated the coupled model SWAT-MODFLOW. To link these two models, the surface and sub-surface water flow components are exchanged between the Disaggregated Hydrological Response Units (DHRUs) of SWAT with the MODFLOW-NWT’ grid cells. In addition, three more flow components are sequentially exchanged: the deep percolation from SWAT to MODFLOW-NWT, baseflow/groundwater discharge from MODFLOW-NWT to SWAT, and the river heads from SWAT to MODFLOW-NWT. The results of the application show that the coupled model satisfactorily, quantified by R2 ≥ 0.5, simulates streamflow and particularly, groundwater heads. In fact, both observations and simulations indicate that, owing to an ongoing overexploitation of the aquifer, heads have been decreased steadily over the studied period which has led to a parallel decline of the groundwater storage. Moreover, the analysis of the stream–aquifer exchange flows indicates that groundwater discharge towards the stream-network (effluent conditions) is orders of magnitude higher than the opposite process (influent conditions). In addition, findings reveal that many of the tributaries across the GRB have shifted from a perennial regime to ephemeral/intermittent system over the past decades. The provided and well-tested coupled model would be a viable asset to assess a wide range of plausible scenarios to identify most effective and practical water resource management schemes to recover the severely depleted surface water and groundwater resources of the GRB.

Modelling Technique for the Assessment of the Sub-Soil Drain for Groundwater Seepage Remediation

Groundwater simulation technique was carried out for examining the performance of sub-soil drain at problematic site area. Subsoil drain was proposed as one of solution for groundwater seepage occurred at the slope face by reducing groundwater table at Taman Botani Park Kuala Lumpur. The simulation technique used Modular Three- Dimensional Finite Difference Groundwater Flow (MODFLOW) software. In transient conditions, the results of simulation showed that heads increases surpass 1 to 2 m from the elevation level of the slope area that caused groundwater seepage on slope face. This study attempt to decrease the heads increase surpass by using different sub-soil drain size in simulation technique. The sub-soil drain capable to decline the heads ranges of 1 to 2 m.

Simulation of Sub-Drains Performance Using Visual MODFLOW for Slope Water Seepage Problem

Numerical simulation technique was used for investigating water seepage problem at the Botanic Park Kuala Lumpur. A proposed sub-drains installation in problematic site location was simulated using Modular Three-Dimensional Finite Difference Groundwater Flow (MODFLOW) software. The results of simulation heads during transient condition showed that heads in between 43 m (water seepage occurred at level 2) until 45 m (water seepage occurred at level 4) which heads measurement are referred to mean sea level. However, elevations measurements for level 2 showed the values between 41 to 42 m from mean sea level and elevations for level 4 between 42 to 45 m from mean sea level. These results indicated an increase in heads for level 2 and level 4 between 1 to 2 m when compared to elevations slope at the level 2 and level 4. The head increases surpass the elevation level of the slope area that causing water seepage at level 2 and level 4. In order to overcome this problems, the heads level need to be decrease to 1 until 2 m by using two options of sub-drain dimension size. Sub-drain with the dimension of 0.0750 m (diameter), 0.10 m (length) and using 4.90 m spacing was the best method to use as it was able to decrease the heads to the required levels of 1 to 2 m.

Nonlinear effects of locally heterogeneous hydraulic conductivity fields on regional stream–aquifer exchanges

Abstract. Computational experiments are performed to evaluate the effects of locally heterogeneous conductivity fields on regional exchanges of water between stream and aquifer systems in the Middle Heihe River basin (MHRB) of northwestern China. The effects are found to be nonlinear in the sense that simulated discharges from aquifers to streams are systematically lower than discharges produced by a base model parameterized with relatively coarse effective conductivity. A similar, but weaker, effect is observed for stream leakage. The study is organized around three hypotheses: (H1) small-scale spatial variations of conductivity significantly affect regional exchanges of water between streams and aquifers in river basins, (H2) aggregating small-scale heterogeneities into regional effective parameters systematically biases estimates of stream–aquifer exchanges, and (H3) the biases result from slow paths in groundwater flow that emerge due to small-scale heterogeneities. The hypotheses are evaluated by comparing stream–aquifer fluxes produced by the base model to fluxes simulated using realizations of the MHRB characterized by local (grid-scale) heterogeneity. Levels of local heterogeneity are manipulated as control variables by adjusting coefficients of variation. All models are implemented using the MODFLOW (Modular Three-dimensional Finite-difference Groundwater Flow Model) simulation environment, and the PEST (parameter estimation) tool is used to calibrate effective conductivities defined over 16 zones within the MHRB. The effective parameters are also used as expected values to develop lognormally distributed conductivity (K) fields on local grid scales. Stream–aquifer exchanges are simulated with K fields at both scales and then compared. Results show that the effects of small-scale heterogeneities significantly influence exchanges with simulations based on local-scale heterogeneities always producing discharges that are less than those produced by the base model. Although aquifer heterogeneities are uncorrelated at local scales, they appear to induce coherent slow paths in groundwater fluxes that in turn reduce aquifer–stream exchanges. Since surface water–groundwater exchanges are critical hydrologic processes in basin-scale water budgets, these results also have implications for water resources management.

Potential of MODFLOW to Model Hydrological Interactions in a Semikarst Floodplain of the Ozark Border Forest in the Central United States

Abstract Riparian shallow groundwater and nutrient movement is important for aquatic and forest ecosystem health. Understanding stream water (SW)–shallow groundwater (GW) interactions is necessary for proper management of floodplain biodiversity, but it is particularly confounding in underrepresented semikarst hydrogeological systems. The Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Ground-Water Flow Model (MODFLOW) was used to simulate shallow groundwater flow and nutrient transport processes in a second-growth Ozark border forest for the 2011 water year. MODFLOW provided approximations of hydrologic head that were statistically comparable to observed data (Nash–Sutcliffe = 0.47, r2 = 0.77, root-mean-square error = 0.61 cm, and mean difference = 0.46 cm). Average annual flow estimates indicated that 82% of the reach length was a losing stream, while the remaining 18% was gaining. The reach lost more water to the GW during summer (2405 m3 day−1) relative to fall (2184 m3 day−1), spring (2102 m3 day−1), and winter (1549 m3 day−1) seasons. Model results showed that the shallow aquifer had the highest nitrate loading during the winter season (707 kg day−1). A Particle-Tracking Model for MODFLOW (MODPATH) revealed significant spatial variations between piezometer sites (p = 0.089) in subsurface flow path and travel time, ranging from 213 m and 3.6 yr to 197 m and 11.6 yr. The current study approach is novel with regard to the use of transient flow conditions (as opposed to steady state conditions) in underrepresented semikarst geological systems of the U.S. Midwest. This study emphasizes the significance of semikarst geology in regulating SW–GW hydrologic and nutrient interactions and provides baseline information and modeling predictions that will facilitate future studies and management plans.

A Numerical Modeling System of the Hydrological Cycle for Estimation of Water Fluxes in the Huaihe River Plain Region, China

Abstract To analyze the water budget under human influences in the Huaihe River plain region in China, the authors have developed a numerical modeling system that integrates water flux algorithms into a platform created by coupling a soil moisture model with the modular three-dimensional finite-difference groundwater flow model (MODFLOW). The modeling system is largely based on physical laws and employs a numerical method of the finite difference to simulate water movement and fluxes in a horizontally discretized watershed or field. The majority of model parameters carry physical significance and can be determined by field and laboratory measurements or derived from watershed characteristics contained in GIS and remote sensing data. Several other empirical parameters need to be estimated by model calibration. The numerical modeling system is calibrated in the Linhuanji catchment (2 560 km2) to estimate surface runoff, groundwater recharge, and groundwater loss for evapotranspiration and stream baseflow. Model validation is conducted at a small runoff experimental field (1.36 km2) in the Wuduogou Hydrological Experimental Station to test the model’s capability to simulate hydrological components and estimate water fluxes using observed stream stage and groundwater data, as well as lysimeter-measured precipitation recharge and groundwater loss. As proven by the promising results of model testing, this physically based and distributed-parameter model is a valuable contribution to the ever-advancing technology of hydrological modeling and water resources assessment.

Large-scale water resources management within the framework of GLOWA-Danube. Part A: The groundwater model

The research project GLOWA-Danube, financed by the German Federal Government, is investigating long-term changes in the water cycle of the upper Danube river basin (77,000 km 2) in light of global climatic change. Its aim is to build a fully integrated decision-support tool “DANUBIA” that combines the competence of 11 different research institutes in domains covering all major aspects governing the water cycle—from the formation of clouds, to groundwater flow patterns, to the behaviour of the water consumer. Both the influence of natural changes in the ecosystem, such as climate change, and changes in human behaviour, such as changes in land use or water consumption, are considered. DANUBIA is comprised of 15 individual disciplinary models that are connected via customized interfaces that facilitate network-based parallel calculations. The strictly object-oriented DANUBIA architecture was developed using the graphical notation tool UML (Unified Modeling Language) and has been implemented in Java code. All models use the same spatial discretisation for the exchange of data (1 × 1 km grid cells) but are using different time steps. The representation of a vast number of relevant physical and social processes that occur at different spatial and temporal scales is a very demanding task. Newly developed up- and downscaling procedures [Rojanschi, V., 2001. Effects of upscaling for a finite-difference flow model. Master’s Thesis, Institut für Wasserbau, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany] and a sophisticated time controller developed by the computer sciences group [Hennicker, R., Barth, M., Kraus, A., Ludwig, M., 2002. DANUBIA: A Web-based modelling and decision support system for integrative global change research in the upper Danube basin. In: GSF (Ed.), GLOWA, German Program on Global Change in the Hydrological Cycle Status Report 2002. GSF, Munich, pp. 35–38; Kraus, A., Ludwig, M., 2003. GLOWA-Danube Papers Technical Release No. 002 (Danubia Framework), Software-Release No.: 0.9.2, Documentation Version: 0.10, Release Date: 27 March 2003] are required to solve the emerging problems. After a first successful public demonstration of the DANUBIA package (nine models) in May 2002 [Mauser, W., Stolz, R., Colgan, A., 2002. GLOWA-Danube: integrative techniques, scenarios and strategies regarding global change of the water cycle. In: GSF (Ed.), GLOWA, German Program on Global Change in the Hydrological Cycle (Phase I, 2000–2003) Status Report 2002. GSF, Munich, pp. 31–34], the research consortium is now preparing a first validation run of DANUBIA for the period 1995–1999 with all 15 models. After successful completion of the validation, a scenario run based on IPCC climate scenarios [IPCC, 2001. Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. In: Watson, R.T., Core Writing Team (Eds.), A Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, 398pp] for a five year period between 2025 and 2040 will follow at the end of 2003. The research group “Groundwater and Water Resources Management” at the Institute of Hydraulic Engineering, Universität Stuttgart, is contributing both a three-dimensional groundwater flow model of the catchment and an agent-based model for simulating water supply and distribution. This paper gives a general overview of the GLOWA-Danube project and describes the groundwater modeling segment. Nickel et al. deal with the water supply model in a second contribution to this special issue. A three-dimensional numerical groundwater flow model consisting of four main layers has been developed and is in a continual state of refinement (MODFLOW, [McDonald, M.G., Harbaugh, A.W., 1988. A modular three-dimensional finite-difference ground-water flow model: US Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Washington, USA (book 6, Chapter A1)]). One main research focus has been on the investigation of upscaling techniques to meet the requirement of a fixed 1 × 1 km cell size. This cell size is compulsory for all models in DANUBIA in order to facilitate a one to one parameter exchange. In a second stage, a transport model (nitrogen) will be added (MT3D: [Zheng, C., Hathaway, D.-L., 1991. MT3D: a new modular three-dimensional transport model and its application in predicting the persistence and transport of dissolved compounds from a gasoline spill, with implications for remediation. Association of Ground Water Scientists and Engineers Annual Meeting on Innovative Ground Water Technologies for the ’90s, National Ground Water Association, Westerville, Ohio, USA. Ground Water 29 (5)].

A decision support system for analysing the impact of water restriction policies

The overall objective of the “Design of a Integrated Ground Water Management System. Application in the aquifer system 08.29 in Mancha Oriental, Spain” project (GESMO), financed by the Spanish government, is to research into new software tools for managing water resources in the agricultural environment. This paper presents a decision support system (DSS) developed within that project. The goal of the system is to assist Eastern Mancha Central Irrigation Board authorities to evaluate water use policies that combine the sustainability of natural resources with regional economic development, which is effectively based on irrigation farming. For this purpose, two different models were integrated within one and the same computer application. One is a hydrogeological model able to simulate the River Júcar basin and its associated aquifer. The other is an econometric model capable of statistically predicting the evolution of the regional crops map, the crop yields and the associated prices, thus allowing for the determination of the regional gross product of crops. A combination of both models can be used to compare the reserve of ground water with the product generated using it as a resource, thus making easier to identify the policies that best combine both factors. The scope of this work is the whole river Júcar aquifer (which is the second largest in surface in Spain) and the lands irrigated by it. Functionally, the hydrogeological model is based on finite differences in accordance with the Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Ground Water Flow (MODFLOW) model developed by the US Geological Survey (USGS), whereas the econometric model is supported by statistical techniques. An important effort have been made in coupling both models as a feedback cycle allowing for a dynamic scenario assessment. Technically, the DSS is conceived as an integrated tool which has been implemented in Visual Basic with a database associated. Its architecture could be translated to other regions without significant programming changes, only introducing new particular parameters into the database.