Modern Wheat Research Articles

Current research status and emerging trends in wheat: An integrated scientometric analysis based on ploidy uncovers hidden footprints in the scientific landscape

Wheat, a highly versatile staple crop cultivated extensively for its grains on a global scale, is poised to experience increased demand to sustain the burgeoning population, owing to its superior nutritional potential. Modern wheat, a hexaploid species, has evolved through the introgression of numerous preceding ploidies, including Einkorn, Emmer, Aegilops, and others, each possessing distinct qualitative and quantitative traits. Scientometric and topical analyses serve as effective tools to quantitatively evaluate scientific research by measuring the knowledge expressed in scientific publications and keywords. Thus, comprehending the research status regarding wheat domestication events within primary, secondary, and tertiary gene pools is paramount for enhancing wheat production. In this study, we analyze data retrieved from PubMed to elucidate the research status and identify bottlenecks across different ploidy of genomic pools of wheat. The publication trends on wheat have experienced exponential growth over the past three decades, with China emerging as a leading center for publications. In contrast to the publication frequency observed in hexaploid common wheat, scholarly output concerning Einkorn and Aegilops is approximately tenfold lesser, with emmer trailing behind at three times fewer publications. This discrepancy underscores the prioritization of expedited research initiatives targeting these species, aimed at elucidating latent biological characteristics and optimizing their breeding capabilities. Keywords such as “stress,” “GWAS,” and “gene” are prominent, reflecting the challenges posed by climatic factors on wheat production and their mitigation through molecular breeding and gene manipulation. Notably, the keyword “einkorn” highlights its potential as a donor for fine-tuning traits related to wheat adaptation processes and quality, crucial for modern wheat’s survivability under adverse climates. Conversely, higher publication rates on emmer are primarily associated with Italy, possibly due to its favorable Mediterranean climate for tetraploid wheat. Keywords like “Pasta” and “Ochratoxin, DON” are prevalent, with the former being derived from durum wheat and the latter being reported in higher amounts in durum compared to other wheat species, rendering it less suitable for consumption. Enriched keywords such as “genome” and “resistance” underscore the critical characteristics of Aegilops. Other significant keywords like “Aceria tosichella” possibly indicate multiple stages of resistance conferred by Aegilops, while the presence of the grain softness protein “puroindoline” enhances its acceptability for donation by Aegilops. Spelt, a close relative of common wheat, exhibits a research trend with thousands of annual publications and enriched keywords such as “stress” and “yield” reflect the current scientific emphasis on wheat research. Furthermore, hierarchical keywords like “bio-control” and “celiac disease” merit consideration for future research on hexaploid wheat.

Wheat yield and grain-filling characteristics due to cultivar replacement in the Haihe Plain in China.

The Haihe Plain plays an important role in wheat production and food security in China and has experienced continuous cultivar replacement since the 1950s.This study assessed the evolution of the yield and grain-filling characteristics of the main winter wheat cultivars in the Haihe Plain over the last seven decades (1950s to date). Cultivar characterization indicated that the increase in yield was negatively affected by spike number and positively affected by the number of kernels per spike before the 2000s and kernel weight after the 2000s. Field trials were conducted across two ecological zones over two consecutive wheatgrowing seasons. The results showed that genetic gains in grain yield, spike number, and kernel weight during 1955 to 2021 were 0.629%, 0.574%, and 0.332% year-1 on a relative basis or 39.12 kg ha-1, 24,350 hm-2, and 0.15 g year-1 on an absolute basis, respectively. However, the increase in the kernel number per spike was not significant. Moreover, cultivar replacement explained 25.6%, 12.8%, and 37.5% of the total variance in grain yield, spike number, and kernel weight, respectively. In summary, during the initial grain-filling stage, wheat cultivar replacement led to the shortening of grain-filling duration and rapid grain-filling rate. However, a longer active grain-filling duration was produced by prolonged durations of rapid and late grain-filling. Additionally, the experimental year had a greater effect on the kernel number, which explained 53.2% of the total variance. Ultimately, modern wheat cultivars had a greater kernel weight. Although the increase in kernel weight has affected grain yield during cultivar replacements in the Haihe Plain, the potential for further yield increase through kernel weight enhancement alone is limited. Consequently, future breeding efforts and cultivation practices should focus on improving spike traits and canopy architecture to enhance productivity.

Assessing the impact of early and terminal droughts on root growth, grain yield and yield stability in old and modern wheat cultivars on the Loess Plateau

Understanding changes in root traits of high-yielding genotypes that consistently perform during different drought periods is crucial for improving wheat production and yield stability. A 2-year field trial and a pot experiment were conducted to determine the response of root growth and grain yield to early and terminal droughts in old and modern cultivars (FC3: 1960s and CH1: 2010s) under rainfed and irrigated conditions in the field. Rainfed wheat faced terminal drought in 2015–2016 and early drought in 2016–2017. Plants in the pot experiment were exposed to terminal drought, early drought, and well-watered. Both field and pot experiments showed higher grain yield in modern cultivar CH1 compared to FC3. Early and terminal droughts reduced grain yield in both cultivars, with a greater reduction in FC3. CH1 exhibited higher yield stability under drought conditions and experienced less reduction in early drought. Compared to FC3, CH1 produced more root biomass in the early growth stage. At anthesis, CH1 had significantly lower root biomass and root length density in the topsoil layer (00.2 m) and higher in the subsoil layer (0.21.0 m) than FC3, respectively. At maturity, the retention rate of subsoil root biomass in CH1 was higher, especially under early drought (80.2 % in field and 93.9 % in pot experiments). Both cultivars consumed similar seasonal water use, but CH1 reduced pre-anthesis water use and consumed more water after anthesis. This study indicates that modern cultivar had vigorous root growth at early stage. A higher proportion of root biomass preserved in deep soil after anthesis enhanced post-anthesis water use and photosynthetic rate, improved post-anthesis dry matter accumulation, and thus resulted in higher thousand kernel weight. These factors ensure higher yield and yield stability under both early and terminal drought stress.

Wild grass-derived alleles represent a genetic architecture for the resilience of modern common wheat to stresses.

This review explores the integration of wild grass-derived alleles into modern bread wheat breeding to tackle the challenges of climate change and increasing food demand. With a focus on synthetic hexaploid wheat, this review highlights the potential of genetic variability in wheat wild relatives, particularly Aegilops tauschii, for improving resilience to multifactorial stresses like drought, heat, and salinity. The evolutionary journey of wheat (Triticum spp.) from diploid to hexaploid species is examined, revealing significant genetic contributions from wild grasses. We also emphasize the importance of understanding incomplete lineage sorting in the genomic evolution of wheat. Grasping this information is crucial as it can guide breeders in selecting the appropriate alleles from the gene pool of wild relatives to incorporate into modern wheat varieties. This approach improves the precision of phylogenetic relationships and increases the overall effectiveness of breeding strategies. This review also addresses the challenges in utilizing the wheat wild genetic resources, such as the linkage drag and cross-compatibility issues. Finally, we culminate the review with future perspectives, advocating for a combined approach of high-throughput phenotyping tools and advanced genomic techniques to comprehensively understand the genetic and regulatory architectures of wheat under stress conditions, paving the way for more precise and efficient breeding strategies.

Harnessing landrace diversity empowers wheat breeding

Harnessing genetic diversity in major staple crops through the development of new breeding capabilities is essential to ensure food security1. Here we examined the genetic and phenotypic diversity of the A. E. Watkins landrace collection2 of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), a major global cereal, by whole-genome re-sequencing of 827 Watkins landraces and 208 modern cultivars and in-depth field evaluation spanning a decade. We found that modern cultivars are derived from two of the seven ancestral groups of wheat and maintain very long-range haplotype integrity. The remaining five groups represent untapped genetic sources, providing access to landrace-specific alleles and haplotypes for breeding. Linkage disequilibrium-based haplotypes and association genetics analyses link Watkins genomes to the thousands of identified high-resolution quantitative trait loci and significant marker–trait associations. Using these structured germplasm, genotyping and informatics resources, we revealed many Watkins-unique beneficial haplotypes that can confer superior traits in modern wheat. Furthermore, we assessed the phenotypic effects of 44,338 Watkins-unique haplotypes, introgressed from 143 prioritized quantitative trait loci in the context of modern cultivars, bridging the gap between landrace diversity and current breeding. This study establishes a framework for systematically utilizing genetic diversity in crop improvement to achieve sustainable food security.

Molecular characterization of QTL for grain zinc and iron concentrations in wheat landrace Chinese Spring.

Three stable QTL for grain zinc concentration were identified in wheat landrace Chinese Spring. Favorable alleles were more frequent in landraces than in modern wheat cultivars. Wheat is a major source of dietary energy for the growing world population. Developing cultivars with enriched zinc and iron can potentially alleviate human micronutrient deficiency. In this study, a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population with 245 lines derived from cross Zhou 8425B/Chinese Spring was used to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) for grain zinc concentration (GZnC) and grain iron concentration (GFeC) across four environments. Three stable QTL for GZnC with all favorable alleles from Chinese Spring were identified on chromosomes 3BL, 5AL, and 5BL. These QTL explaining maxima of 8.7%, 5.8%, and 7.1% of phenotypic variances were validated in 125 resequenced wheat accessions encompassing both landraces and modern cultivars using six kompetitive allele specific PCR (KASP) assays. The frequencies of favorable alleles for QGZnCzc.caas-3BL, QGZnCzc.caas-5AL and QGZnCzc.caas-5BL were higher in landraces (90.4%, 68.0%, and 100.0%, respectively) compared to modern cultivars (45.9%, 35.4%, and 40.9%), suggesting they were not selected in breeding programs. Candidate gene association studies on GZnC in the cultivar panel further delimited the QTL into 8.5Mb, 4.1Mb, and 47.8Mb regions containing 46, 4, and 199 candidate genes, respectively. The 5BL QTL located in a region where recombination was suppressed. Two stable and three less stable QTL for GFeC with favorable alleles also from Chinese Spring were identified on chromosomes 4BS (Rht-B1a), 4DS (Rht-D1a), 1DS, 3AS, and 6DS. This study sheds light on the genetic basis of GZnC and GFeC in Chinese Spring and provides useful molecular markers for wheat biofortification.

Evaluation of source–sink manipulation through defoliation treatments in promising bread wheat lines under optimal irrigation and rainfed conditions

The source–sink (S-S) ratio during the grain-filling period is crucial for wheat crop yield. The aim of this study was to investigate the relative sensitivity of grain yield in response to treatments of S-S ratio changes to determine the extent of S-S limitation during grain filling in modern wheat genotypes. The S-S manipulation treatments included four levels: check (CH), removal of flag leaf (RFL), removal of all leaves (RAL), and removal of the upper half of the spikes (RHS). The results showed significant differences between genotypes (pb< 0.001%) in all traits. Drought stress decreased grain weight per spike (GWS) (g) and grain yield (GY) (kg/ha) by 18% and 25%, respectively. The average reduction in GWS under irrigation and rainfed conditions was 8.25% and 6.71% for RFL and 12.25% and 11.15% for RAL, respectively. By RFL and RAL, increasing the remobilization from the stem and spike straw helped to reduce the effects of source limitation. Also, by RHS, the reduction in photosynthetic materials production in both conditions was only equivalent to 38% and 29% of the expected values, respectively, which shows the presence of strong sinks in vegetative organs (stem and spike) compared to grains. Vegetative organs seem to have a larger sink for the uptake of photosynthetic materials than grains when the source–sink ratio increases. However, high-yield genotypes showed more severe source limitation, while low-yield genotypes showed more relative sink limitation. Overall, to increase the yield potential in high-yielding genotypes, photosynthetic sources and sinks in low-yielding genotypes should be improved.

Does Exogenous Application of salicylic acid induce salt stress tolerance in potentially high-yielding modern wheat cultivars?

Does Exogenous Application of salicylic acid induce salt stress tolerance in potentially high-yielding modern wheat cultivars?

Modern wheat breeding selection synergistically improves above- and belowground traits.

The haplotypes selected by modern wheat breeding to improve aboveground traits enlarge the root systems of wheat seedlings.

Yield has minimal effect on whole-grain mineral density of modern soft wheat compared to production environment, genotype, and test weight

ProblemMillions of people worldwide lack diversified diets and rely on staple foods, like wheat, that are inherently poor in minerals as primary sources of nutrition. Efforts have been made to enhance grain mineral density in wheat through plant breeding and crop management, though there is concern that mineral “dilution” will occur if higher yield is also sought. Much of that concern comes from studies comparing historic and modern wheat genotypes with impactful genetic differences (e.g., tall vs. semi-dwarf), but there is much less clarity in studies focused on modern genotypes. ObjectiveThe objective of this research was to better understand factors affecting concentrations of eight minerals in whole-grain soft white wheat, especially yield. MethodsThis was done by collecting a genetically and environmentally diverse grain mineral dataset and analyzing it in multiple ways. ResultsThere was no significant effect of yield on density of any tested mineral in grain when factors such as production environment and test weight were controlled, though regression coefficients for yield were generally negative. Thus, the negative effect of yield was present, but it was insignificant and small relative to other sources of variation. Production environment had the greatest impact on grain minerals, contributing between 50% and 90% of variation in the data, depending on the mineral. Wheat genotype had an impact on density of most minerals and genotype by environment interactions were common. Achieving genetic gain in elevating grain minerals through plant breeding may be most successful for Zn, P, and Mg, because genotypic variation and heritability were relatively high for these minerals. Further analysis of Zn showed that breeding selection for simultaneously high-Zn, high-yield wheat varieties is possible, because individual wheat varieties tended to have consistent grain Zn relative to the mean, regardless of yield level or production environment. Grain test weight also had a significant impact on concentrations of two minerals (K and Cu). Factors that impact plant health and metabolism, and ultimately grain test weight, are likely to also affect plant mineral uptake and translocation, possibly causing this association. ImplicationsIn summary, this analysis provides evidence that the impact of yield on grain mineral density among modern wheat germplasm is small and insignificant. In the quest to improve the mineral nutrient value of wheat through plant breeding, crop management, and other approaches, the minor negative impact of yield should be considered secondarily to much more significant factors like production environment, wheat genotype, and even test weight.

Comparison of quality, dietary fiber and glycemic index of whole wheat breads using various modern and old wheats and investigate the effect of xylanase

Six bread wheat varieties (modern wheats) widely grown in Turkey and nine different bread wheat varieties registered prior to 1970 (old wheats) were used in the present study. This study aimed to determine and compare the quality characteristics, dietary fiber contents and in vitro glycemic index of whole wheat breads produced using modern and old bread wheat varieties. The effect of xylanase on the quality, staling and dietary fiber content of whole wheat breads was also investigated. Mean sedimentation and modified sedimentation values, Farinograph development time, stability, quality number of whole wheat flours produced by modern wheats were higher than those of the old varieties. Whole wheat breads of modern varieties had higher mean volume and lower firmness values as compared to old varieties. Whole wheat breads of old wheat varieties had higher mean soluble dietary fiber content as compared to that of modern wheat varieties. Xylanase addition generally had an increasing effect on bread volume and soluble dietary fiber contents and a softening effect on firmness values. There were no significant differences between the mean (in vitro) glycemic index values of whole wheat breads produced from modern and old varieties. The results in the present study indicated that modern bread wheat varieties had better whole wheat bread making quality as compared with old bread wheat varieties. In addition, xylanase usage in whole wheat bread formula had an improving effect on whole wheat bread quality.

The benefits of experimental breeding research genotypes for the genetic resources of spring durum wheat

AbstractOur study aimed to incorporate 60 newly acquired spring durum wheat genotypes into the Prague Gene Bank collection, focusing on 54 experimental breeding research genotypes and their technological quality contributions for conservation and future use. We analyzed a total of 11 field and 6 technological parameters of grain quality. Additionally, we identified the composition of high molecular weight glutenin subunits (HMW-GSs) in 13 accessions with contrasting technological characteristics. Two different extraction procedures were employed to detect HMW-GSs: one based on total protein extraction and the other on gliadin pre-extraction. The tested parameters exhibited a significant range of variability, with the relative standard deviation ranging from 2.1% for starch content to 96.7% for the gluten index. Additionally, six breeding research genotypes exhibited high technological grain quality comparable to the two modern durum wheat cultivars. Two accessions: M90-99–2 and IG 142076 showed above-average Zeleny sedimentation values, probably positively influenced by the presence of HMW-GSs A1: (2*). Genotypes PI 675012 and IG 142039 displayed the highest grain stability in technological parameters. Both extraction methods also detected the specific subunit B1: (6 + 8*) in the genotype IG 142039. Preserving these genotypes thus represents a substantial expansion of genetic resources in the genebank.

Ancestry and genetic diversity studies among primitive and modern wheat species based on phenotypic data pool

Ancestry and genetic diversity studies among primitive and modern wheat species based on phenotypic data pool

A tale of two eras: assessing the impact of breeding programs on historical and modern German wheat cultivars under distinct management

Breeding advancements have significantly improved grain yield over recent decades, yet further progress is needed to meet global food demands amid a growing population. In this study, we systematically examine the responses of both historical and modern winter wheat cultivars, released between 1895 and 2007 in Germany, to varying management intensities. We quantified the independent contributions of nitrogen (N) levels, growth regulators, and plant protection measures to crop productivity and growth variables over two growing seasons. Historical cultivars (pre-1960) exhibited a lower yield (4.6 t ha−1) and harvest index (0.30) compared to modern cultivars (post-1960), which demonstrated a higher yield (6.8 t ha−1) and harvest index (0.40) across all treatments, even those excluding both nitrogen and agrochemicals. We found positive trends in the yield and yield components for both historical (1895–1960) and modern (1961–2007) cultivars; however, significance was only noted for modern cultivars. Crop growth in historical cultivars was aided more by growth regulators, while modern cultivars gained more benefits from plant protection. However, both categories of cultivars produced a synergistic response when combining agronomic practices. Based on a comparison of N application rates and agronomic practices, N had a distinctly greater impact on yield and yield components than other treatments. In both historical and modern cultivars, grain number per ear was the most influential contributing factor to yield. Nevertheless, the effect of the thousand grain weight on yield was notably less for modern cultivars compared to their historical ones. Grain nitrogen yield increased up to mid-supply nitrogen application but remained constant at high rates. Results underscored that cultivar-specific responses for yield and yield components need to consider the interactions between fertilization and other agronomic practices.

Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var. durum) root system response to drought and salt stresses and genetic characterization for root-related traits.

Abiotic stresses such as drought and salt are significant threats to crop productivity. The root system adaptation and tolerance to abiotic stresses are regulated by many biochemical reactions, which create a complex and multigenic response. The present study aims to evaluate the diversity of root responses to cyclic abiotic stress in three modern durum wheat varieties and one hydric stress-tolerant landrace in a pot experiment from seedling to more advanced plant development stages. The genotypes responded to abiotic stress during the whole experiment very differently, and at the end of the experiment, nine out of the 13 traits for the landrace J. Khetifa were significantly higher than other genotypes. Moreover, single sequence repeat (SSR) genetic analysis revealed high polymorphism among the genotypes screened and interesting private alleles associated with root system architecture traits. We propose that the markers used in this study could be a resource as material for durum wheat breeding programs based on marker-assisted selection to increase the vegetal material with high drought and salt stress tolerance and to identify candidates with strong early vigor and efficient root systems. This study provides appropriate genetic materials for marker-assisted breeding programs as well as a basic study for the genetic diversity of root traits of durum wheat crops.

Genomic insights into the origin and evolution of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) as a valuable gene pool for modern wheat breeding

Spelt (Triticum aestivum ssp. spelta) is an important wheat subspecies mainly cultivated in Europe before the 20th century that has contributed to modern wheat breeding as a valuable genetic resource. However, relatively little is known about the origins and maintenance of spelt populations. Here, using resequencing data from 416 worldwide wheat accessions, including representative spelt wheat, we demonstrate that European spelt emerged when primitive hexaploid wheat spread to the west and hybridized with pre-settled domesticated emmer, the putative maternal donor. Genomic introgression regions from domesticated emmer confer spelt’s primitive morphological characters used for species taxonomy, such as tenacious glumes and later flowering. We propose a haplotype-based “spelt index” to identify spelt-type wheat varieties and to quantify utilization of the spelt gene pool in modern wheat cultivars. This study reveals the genetic basis for the establishment of the spelt wheat subspecies in a specific ecological niche and the vital role of the spelt gene pool as a unique germplasm resource in modern wheat breeding.

The Application of Wheat Farmers to Modern Agriculture Technology Related to Improve Crop Production in Thi-Qar

The research aim is to determine the level of application farmers of Modern Agricultural Technology have in improving wheat crop production in Thi-Qar Province. A multistage sample probability proportionates of size (P.P.S.) was used to conduct this study. The sample number was (75 farmers from the Qalat Sukkar district, 105 farmers from the AL-Rifai district, 45 farmers from the AL-Shatrah district, and 29 farmers from the ALNasr district) (15% of the total number of farmers) it was 254 farmers. Questionnaire techniques and interviews with the farmers were adopted to collect the data (March to May 2019). The study has revealed that the highest percentage (62.6 %) belonged to the medium category in applying modern agricultural technology to improve wheat crop production. The application level of modern agricultural technology was significant and positive at a 1% probability level under six variables. Multiple regression analyses have been studied with ten variables: social class, age, Education, Occupation, Farm power, Size of land holding, Family type, Family size, social participation, and Source of information utilized. This research has contributed nine independent variables with significant levels of variation to the extent of the application level of modern agricultural technology in improving wheat crop production (R2= 0.759). The importance of farmers using modern agricultural technology with the parts (Soil preparation, Planting and crop service, harvesting processes and marketing) was high according to (72.12, 70.72, and 68.41) respectively. The data were used for analysis: Frequency, percentage, mean, Standard deviation, and multiple regression analysis. According to the result, farmers' application of modern technology in improving wheat crop production was good. Modern agricultural technology will reduce costs, increase productivity, and save soil quality. The importance of farmers with the parts (Soil preparation, planting, crop service, harvesting processes, and marketing) was high according to (72.12, 70.72, and 68.41) respectively. Because of this, it is necessary to improve the cultivation of wheat crops to achieve high productivity and reduce the problems that happen during agricultural production. Keywords: Technology, Independent variables, Farmers, Harvesting, Size of land holding

Meta-QTL analysis and candidate genes for quality traits, mineral content, and abiotic-related traits in wild emmer.

Wild emmer (Triticum turgidum ssp. dicoccoides) genotypes were studied for their high-nutritional value and good tolerance to various types of stress; for this reason, several QTL (quantitative trait loci) studies have been conducted to find favorable alleles to be introgressed into modern wheat cultivars. Given the complexity of the QTL nature, their interaction with the environment, and other QTLs, a small number of genotypes have been used in wheat breeding programs. Meta-QTL (MQTL) analysis helps to simplify the existing QTL information, identifying stable genomic regions and possible candidate genes for further allele introgression. The study aimed to identify stable QTL regions across different environmental conditions and genetic backgrounds using the QTL information of the past 14 years for different traits in wild emmer based upon 17 independent studies. A total of 41 traits were classified as quality traits (16), mineral composition traits (11), abiotic-related traits (13), and disease-related traits (1). The analysis revealed 852 QTLs distributed across all 14 chromosomes of wild emmer, with an average of 61 QTLs per chromosome. Quality traits had the highest number of QTLs (35%), followed by mineral content (33%), abiotic-related traits (28%), and disease-related traits (4%). Grain protein content (GPC) and thousand kernel weight (TKW) were associated with most of the QTLs detected. A total of 43 MQTLs were identified, simplifying the information, and reducing the average confidence interval (CI) from 22.6 to 4.78 cM. These MQTLs were associated with multiple traits across different categories. Nine candidate genes were identified for several stable MQTLs, potentially contributing to traits such as quality, mineral content, and abiotic stress resistance. These genes play essential roles in various plant processes, such as carbohydrate metabolism, nitrogen assimilation, cell wall biogenesis, and cell wall extensibility. Overall, this study underscores the importance of considering MQTL analysis in wheat breeding programs, as it identifies stable genomic regions associated with multiple traits, offering potential solutions for improving wheat varieties under diverse environmental conditions.

Pioneering Communities in Dissemination of Local Wheat Varieties and Products in Turkey

Modern wheat varieties developed since the 1960s have increased yields but have also brought with them serious ecological, social and health problems. Local wheat varieties must be produced, developed, conserved and disseminated by farmers. In this research the pioneering farmer/consumer communities in Çanakkale, Balıkesir and Kars provinces and some community supported agriculture groups in Izmir province active in dissemination of local wheat varieties and breads and other products are examined. Participatory action research methodology was used among producer groups and food communities. The research question was developed through common problems and solutions by involving producers and consumers during the field research in line with participatory action research. The local wheat production of producer groups and the processes of supplying their products to the market were carefully analyzed and this information was shared with food groups. In the food groups, ways to increase the consumption of local wheat products were sought with the information shared. As a result, it is seen that pioneer groups that ensure direct marketing of products from farmers to consumers, organize farmers, work holistically and increase women's participation are more successful in the geographical dissemination of local wheat varieties and ensuring seed sovereignty. In consumer groups, it was observed that understanding the production process and identifying problems related to consumption through focus group studies initially increased the consumption of local wheat products. However, the high cost of bread made from local wheat varieties constitutes one of the biggest obstacles. Collaboration between consumers and food groups with local producers can increase the spread of the production and consumption of local wheat. Local governments can also play an important role in promoting local wheat and its products. One of these supports could be participatory plant breeding.

The Evaluation of a Long-Term Experiment on the Relationships between Weather, Nitrogen Fertilization, Preceding Crop, and Winter Wheat Grain Yield on Cambisol

In this paper, a sequence (1979–2022) of a long-term trial established in Lukavec in 1956 (Czech Republic) focusing on the effect of weather, various nitrogen (N) fertilization methods (control, PK, N1PK, N2PK, and N3PK) and preceding crops (cereals, legumes, and oil plants) on winter wheat grain yield is presented. The weather significantly changed at the site of the long-term trial. While the trend in the mean temperature significantly increased, precipitation did not change significantly over the long term. Four relationships between weather and grain yield were evaluated to be significant: (a) the mean temperature in February (r = −0.4) and the precipitation in (b) February (r = −0.4), (c) March (r = −0.4), and (d) May (r = 0.5). The yield trends for all the fertilizer treatments increased, including the unfertilized control. The N3PK treatment provided the highest mean grain yields, while the unfertilized control had the lowest yields. Comparing the preceding crops, the highest yields were harvested when the wheat followed the legumes. On the other hand, the cereals were evaluated as the least suitable preceding crop in terms of grain yield. According to the linear-plateau model, the optimal nitrogen (N) dose for modern wheat varieties, following legumes and under the trial’s soil climate conditions, was 131 kg ha−1 N, corresponding to a mean grain yield of 8.2 t ha−1.