ABSTRACT A growing consensus holds that the history of philosophy must move beyond its traditional parochialism, yet there has been less clarity about what non-Eurocentric histories that do not reproduce inherited exclusions might look like. One influential alternative is ‘comparative philosophy’, which David Wong characterises as ‘bringing together’ traditions that developed in ‘relative isolation’ and are defined along “regional and cultural lines”. I argue that this framework faces three persistent difficulties – speculation, incommensurability, and geopolitical categorisation – illustrating these problems through the frequently-invoked comparison between René Descartes and Zera Yacob. I argue that these difficulties not only obscure what is philosophically distinctive about each thinker but also hinder our ability to place both within a unified, global narrative of seventeenth-century philosophy. I propose instead a ‘connected history of philosophy’: an approach that centres on tracing concrete material and linguistic connections between thinkers and intellectual milieux. This approach, I suggest, provides a more historically grounded basis for comparison, illuminates the philosophical parallels between Descartes and Zera Yacob, and enables both to be located within the emerging global networks of seventeenth-century intellectual exchange. I conclude by outlining how connected histories can lay foundations for a genuinely global account of early modern philosophy.

Today's common practice of empiric activity prescription in radiopharmaceutical therapy is inconsistent with the modern philosophy of personalized medicine. We investigate the radiobiologic relationship between tumor mean absorbed dose (D mean) and progression-free survival (PFS) in 177Lu-PSMA I&T therapy guided by personalized predictive dosimetry in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Methods: We conducted a single-center retrospective study of the first 20 patients treated with 177Lu-PSMA I&T at our institution. PFS was calculated from the day a patient was assessed by a nuclear medicine physician in the clinic until treatment cessation (due to progression or toxicity) or death. D mean was estimated by predictive dosimetry. Correlation with PFS was performed on the following baseline characteristics: age, Gleason score, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status, estimated glomerular filtration rate, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) doubling time, injected activity per treatment, D mean and D mean per gigabecquerel. Results: Twenty patients naïve to 177Lu-PSMA were treated over a 2-y period, totaling 65 infusions. The median PSA doubling time was 1.6 mo at baseline. The median follow-up time was 8.4 mo (interquartile range [IQR], 4.6-14.5 mo). Each patient received 3 ± 1 treatments (range, 1-5), with a mean injected activity of 7.74 ± 0.66 GBq per treatment. The mean injected activity for the first treatment was 7.85 ± 0.71 GBq. The median D mean for the first treatment was 23 Gy (IQR, 15-36 Gy). The median PFS was 10.6 mo for a D mean of 23 Gy or greater and was 3.1 mo for a D mean of less than 23 Gy (hazard ratio, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.22-0.68; P < 0.01). There were statistically significant correlations between PFS, PSA doubling time, and D mean (P < 0.05). However, there was no statistically significant correlation between the injected activity per treatment versus PFS or D mean (P > 0.05). Conclusion: We found a strong direct correlation between D mean and PFS in patients with metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer treated with 177Lu-PSMA in a real-world setting. We identified a D mean of 23 Gy as a possible threshold for significantly better PFS in our cohort with median PSA doubling time of 1.6 mo. Our findings support radiobiologically sound prescription based on the radiation absorbed dose by personalized predictive dosimetry.

Idealism in Modern Philosophy ed. by Paul Guyer and Rolf-Peter Horstmann (review)

The present text proposes a philosophical-theological reading of conversion based on Ignatian spirituality as reinterpreted by Karl Rahner (1904–1984), one of the most influential theologians of the twentieth century and a central figure in the anthropological turn of contemporary theology. His work marks the beginning of a new chapter in theological thought by integrating human experience as a hermeneutical locus of revelation and by fostering a fruitful dialogue with the philosophical and scientific knowledge of his time. Inspired by the wound of Pamplona and the itinerary of Ignatius of Loyola, this study understands conversion not merely as a religious event but as a cognitive and affective transformation of subjectivity — a process of transcendence involving reason, will, and sensibility. In dialogue with both classical and modern philosophers, it is argued that the experience of conversion can be understood as a movement of self-knowledge and of heeding meaning, in which the human being discovers himself as a discerning subject. Thus, conversion becomes a privileged hermeneutical categoryfor thinking the unity of pathos, logos, and praxis, revealing itself as an original form of theological knowledge and as a horizon for contemporary philosophical reflection.

Religious pluralism has become one of the most contested issues in contemporary philosophy of religion and is generally discussed within the frameworks of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism. This article provides a comparative analysis of religious pluralism in the thought of Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi, one of the leading Sufi figures of Islamic intellectual tradition, and John Hick, a prominent representative of modern philosophy of religion. Mawlana’s understanding of religion is grounded in the metaphysics of waḥdat al-wujūd (the unity of being) and in the moral-metaphysical dimension of divine love. For him, the infinite self-disclosures of the Absolute Being constitute the ontological foundation of religious diversity. Accordingly, Mawlana develops an inclusive and pluralistic perspective in which every faith is regarded as a partial manifestation of divine truth. Although he was well-versed in theological and philosophical debates, Mawlana did not follow the methods of theologians or philosophers when addressing such issues. For him, engaging in excessively abstract reasoning was not a valid path to truth. His conceptions of life, humanity, and religion are shaped by the idea of being. The vastness of being corresponds to his understanding of life and religion, for both emerge from and continue within the essence of existence. To Mawlana, the realm of being is too vast to be grasped by the senses, and its source lies deeper than both the material world and the realms of imagination and sensation. Although Mawlana’s reflections on religious diversity can be analyzed through the contemporary paradigms of exclusivism, inclusivism, and pluralism, it becomes clear that he transcends these frameworks through a more profound and holistic vision. The seemingly contradictory tendencies of exclusivity, inclusivity, and pluralism observed in Sufi discourse stem from the dialectic between the outer (ẓāhir) and inner (bāṭin) dimensions. Thus, the inclusive and pluralistic attitudes in Sufism are not mutually exclusive. Hick, on the other hand, constructs his pluralism on an epistemological basis, interpreting religious diversity as the plurality of human responses to the “Ultimate Reality” within the limits of human cognitive and cultural conditions. Drawing on Kant’s ontology and epistemology, Hick reinterprets the divine by postulating God as the “Ultimate Reality” at the center of his pluralistic framework. This distinction has generated major debates in theology and philosophy of religion, particularly concerning the possibility of revelation. According to Hick, there is a sharp distinction between Reality in itself and Reality as conceptualized and experienced through religious traditions—an indeterminacy that arises from metaphysical uncertainty. Each religion asserts absolute truth claims, yet these claims cannot be verified by any objective criterion. Therefore, no religious tradition can make a complete or final claim about the nature of Reality. The fundamental difference between the two approaches lies in their orientation: while Mawlana proposes a God-centered and religion-centered pluralism, Hick advocates an experience-centered one. The study concludes that Mawlana offers a more holistic framework that preserves the authenticity and socio-cultural dimensions of religion, whereas Hick’s model, though compatible with modern values such as liberalism and tolerance, risks undermining the essence of religion through its reductionist tendencies.

This study analyzes the problems of the unification policy of the South and the North and then presents the unification theory of Hwa-Jaeng as an alternative. The unification policy of the South and the North have problems such as the problem of the unification policy centered on their own system, the problem of the unification policy that maintains the system, the problem of being used as an ideology of division, and the limitations of the division nationalism. These problems arise from the limitations of the identity and dichotomy of modern philosophy. Wonhyo's ideas of Hwa-Jaeng presents the philosophy of difference and coexistence that can overcome the principle of identity and the limitations of dichotomy. The unification theory of Hwa-Jaeng pursues a nation of non-one and non-two and a nation of non-one and one, where the South and the North pursue mutual coexistence, according to the characteristics of the ideas of Hwa-Jaeng. It pursues a society and nation of non-conformity while agreeing on different ideologies and systems, and also not agreeing on them. A nation that realizes a Hwa-Jaeng subject, Hwa-Jaeng society, and social nation that overcomes conflicts to the end is a Hwa-Jaeng unified nation.

In the article, the author examines the features of the theoretical and methodological substantiation of the essence of the concepts of “pedagogical technologies”, “teaching technologies”, “pedagogical technique”, “educational technologies”, etc. In the studied aspect, important factors of pedagogical education are self-study and self-education of the individual. The current stage of development of the education system in Ukraine is characterized by educational innovations aimed at preserving the achievements of the past and, at the same time, at modernizing the education system in accordance with the requirements of the time, the latest achievements of science, culture and social practice. A characteristic feature of this period is the search for new content, forms, methods and means of teaching, education and management; the deployment of extensive experimental work aimed at implementing educational innovations on the principles of the modern philosophy of education, which is significantly different from the previous one. Education today is designed, firstly, to ensure general development aimed at the formation of intellectual, aesthetic, spiritual and creative, moral, psychophysiological qualities of a person; secondly, to promote professional development, which involves the presence of general abilities to solve special tasks. One of the strategic tasks of reforming the content of education is to create prerequisites for the development of young people's abilities, the formation of readiness and ability for self-education, and the widespread use of new pedagogical and information technologies. The following are identified among the main ways of reforming education: ensuring the development of education based on new progressive concepts, introducing modern pedagogical technologies and scientific and methodological achievements into the educational process; reorganization of existing ones and creation of new generation educational institutions, regional centers and experimental sites for testing and selecting effective pedagogical innovations and educational modules.

This study attempts to reread Al-Ghazali's Tahafut al-Falasifah not merely as a theological polemic text, but as a critique of scientific paradigms that has profound relevance to modern philosophy of science. Al-Ghazali's critique of rationalist claims, particularly regarding causality, the eternity of the world, and the limitations of reason, is positioned as an attempt to shake the established epistemic foundations of his time. A qualitative-comparative approach is used by analyzing the primary text of Tahafut hermeneutically, then connecting it with the thoughts of modern philosophers such as David Hume, Karl Popper, and Thomas Kuhn. The results of the study show that Al-Ghazali had already presented an epistemological awareness that aligns with the discourse of the paradigm shift in science. He emphasized that causal relationships are not absolute certainties, but rather habits that can change according to transcendental will. This perspective finds resonance in the development of contemporary science, particularly in quantum physics and the philosophy of science, which emphasize the tentative nature of knowledge. Furthermore, Al-Ghazali's paradigm critique also carries ethical implications: knowledge must always be based on moral values and spiritual awareness to avoid being trapped in scientific arrogance. Thus, Tahafut al-Falasifah can be understood as a laboratory for epistemological criticism that remains relevant for building a paradigm of modern science that is humble, reflective, and humanity-oriented. This research emphasizes the importance of integrating revelation, reason, and science in formulating a new direction for Islamic philosophy and its contribution to the global discourse on the philosophy of science.

In this paper I introduce and analyze two different ways to explain the phenomenon of the disagreement; one is the modern philosophical tradition, and the other is related to argumentation theories. In first place, I explain what a defective explanation of the disagreement is. In second place, I make a relation between this kind of explanation and the reflections of Descartes, Locke, Hobbes, and Leibniz regarding the disagreement. In third place, I invoke the ideas of Popper and Toulmin to understand why those modern philosophers explained the disagreement in such a way. Finally, I introduce some non-defective explanations of the disagreement, related to the argumentation theories, as a different and most accurate framework to explain the disagreement.

Western philosophy has profoundly shaped global civilization, influencing understanding of the world. This dominance, however, presents both opportunities and challenges. This paper argues that the current paradigm of Western philosophy, rooted in modern philosophy’s emphasis on rationality, has become dogmatic and ultimately self-defeating. The pursuit of scientific knowledge, while valuable, has been driven by a narrow conception of rationality that prioritizes logic and empirical evidence while neglecting other crucial dimensions of human experience. This overemphasis on scientification, as Nietzsche argued, has led to a dehumanization of existence by reducing human life to mere rationality, disregarding the importance of narrative, historical memory, and contextual understanding. This paper will critically examine the limitations of this dominant paradigm through a review of Western philosophical thought. By highlighting internal contradictions within modern philosophy itself, we aim to demonstrate how the current emphasis on scientification has stifled the diversity and richness of philosophical inquiry. Ultimately, we argue for a more nuanced and inclusive approach to philosophy that recognizes the multifaceted nature of human experience and embraces a broader range of perspectives.

This article seeks to explore the roots of the Deleuzian body beyond the traditional arguments of the philosophy of the body. In this context, we will first discuss the Cartesian dualistic stance towards the body and its consequences, which form the beginning of early modern philosophy. At the same time, this reflects the ancient traditional views on the body. Such ideas describe the body as a corpse in itself. With Spinoza and later with Nietzsche, the body and soul/mind dualism is replaced by monism and perspectivism. From this perspective, the question 'what can a body do?' is raised. Based on the philosophies of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze describes the body as a vast principle of potentiality. This body constantly appears as the dimension of multiplicity that is self-constructed. Therefore, in this article, while discussing how the stance towards the concept of the body changes from Descartes to Deleuze on the ontological level, we simultaneously try to demonstrate the capabilities of a new understanding of the body.

Abstract This article explores the intercultural significance and creativity of translation in the global dissemination of Chinese culture. It argues that translation is not merely a linguistic transformation, but a process of cultural transformation. Beginning with the German translation of one of Feng Zhi’s sonnets, it illustrates how translation can draw upon philosophical resources within a specific linguistic-cultural context. The article then introduces the theoretical foundations of transculturality ( Transkulturalität ) and transculturation , examining how translation fosters literary innovation across cultures. Furthermore, the article argues that translation serves as a mediator between heterogeneous cultures, creating a “third space” that is neither original nor target culture. Concepts such as ju zhi yi tu 橘枳易土 are used to explain mechanisms of grafting and transformation in translation. Finally, the article draws upon examples from the Chinese translation of Buddhist texts, family history research, and the cross-cultural adaptation of modern philosophy to propose that translation is a vital means of responding to modernity and shaping future cultural forms – a decentralized pathway for knowledge reproduction and reimagination.

This article thoroughly examines Imam Al-Ghazali's views on Islamic education and adab, with an emphasis on a holistic framework that combines knowledge, faith, charity, and morals to form an insān kāmil (perfect human being). Al-Ghazali, a scholar from Tus, Persia, in the 11th century, defined education as a process of moral development and purification of the soul. The main goal of education is to obtain worldly and spiritual happiness. He opposes the educational paradigm of modern philosophers which focuses only on rationality. He emphasized that knowledge without adab is like fire which has no light.Adab is the main pillar of the educational process and helps children learn noble qualities such as patience, humility and honesty. This is implemented from an early age through spiritual practices such as dhikr and muhasabah. In his great works, such as Iḥyā' 'Ulūm ad-Dīn, Ayyuhal Walad, and Tahāfut al-Falāsifah, Al-Ghazali combines rationalism with Sufism. He opposed the dichotomy between worldly knowledge (such as medicine and mathematics) and the hereafter, claiming that revelation provides a balance to prevent misguidance. His educational methods, based on internalizing values, examples, and ethical discussions, support the role of teachers as moral and spiritual role models and students as ethical learners. This thinking is highly relevant to modern education, especially in Indonesia, where a character-based curriculum is implemented by the Ministry of Education and Culture and institutions such as the State Islamic University (UIN) use a holistic approach to address the moral crisis caused by technological advancements. The main challenge lies with educators who lack an understanding of Sufism, which requires intensive training.

The relevance of the study is determined by the total introversion of experience under the influence of digital technologies, which necessitates a rethinking of classical philosophical categories. The phenomena of "introversion of sound" (the shift from the concert hall to private headphones) and "introversion of light" (from collective cinema viewing to personal screens) represent not merely a change of media, but a fundamental restructuring of perception and sociality. Concurrently, a migration of thought is occurring – from the public agora to the digital feed, where the oratorical gesture is replaced by publishing activity. Analyzing this triple transformation – of sound, light, and thought – through the lens of the private/public dialectic allows us to diagnose key conflicts and paradoxes of contemporary culture related to personal autonomy, the nature of the social contract, and new forms of alienation. The research is based on historical-philosophical analysis combined with an examination of the transformation of media technologies. The method involves a dialectical understanding of the private/public boundary (Descartes, Kant, Hegel) and a phenomenological description of technological transformations of perception (sound and light) as key mediators of the private and public in the modern world. The author demonstrates how this metaphysics of light and word becomes secularized in modern philosophy, giving rise to the problem of the autonomous subject (Descartes) and his right to the public use of reason (Kant). The key focus of the work is the analysis of the technological "introversion" of perception: sound, striving for maximum public audibility, ultimately migrates into the private space of the personal audio environment, while the light of visual arts, having traveled from public frescoes and collective cinema, becomes inverted and localized in the emitting screens of personal devices. Paradoxically, technologies that expand access to content lead to the individualization of experience and the erosion of traditional boundaries between spheres. Having undergone a process of expansion, the consumption of information from the public sphere begins to take on a private character, while private leisure for its own sake ceases to exist altogether.

The famous Czech writer Milan Kundera in his essay The Abused Heritage of Cervantes wrote: The boom of sciences drove a man into the tunnel of specialized disciplines [1]. With increasing specialization, many doctors come into a contact with the same patients only episodically. In addition, there are also time limits for individual patients. There is no time to apply knowledge across different levels and areas. The happiness of science is that there are no such limitations and our meeting is witnessing it. In contrast, research on nitric oxide (NO) demonstrates that a transdisciplinary approach is not only possible, but also necessary: in the case of NO it combines cardiovascular physiology, neuroscience, molecular biology, psychology and even noetics. Nitric oxide (NO) in the brain is synthesized mainly by endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). It activates ion channels and regulates the expression of proteins important for axonal and dendritic growth, thereby supporting the formation of new neural connections crucial for learning and memory. NO mediates long-term potentiation (LTP) as a retrograde signal: formed in the postsynaptic membrane, it diffuses back to the presynaptic neuron, increasing neurotransmitter release and strengthening synaptic connections (the so-called Hebbian principle - neurons that fire together, wire together). Through activation of guanylate cyclase, NO increases cGMP levels, which in turn activate protein kinase G (PKG), modulating ion channels and protein activity involved in synaptic plasticity and memory. Inhibition of nNOS after learning disrupts long-term memory consolidation, indicating its key role in transforming labile memory traces into more permanent ones [2,3]. The contribution of NO extends beyond synaptic plasticity. Changes in nNOS activity and glial reactivity in animal models of ADHD suggest that altered NO production may be associated with attention disorders. The coupling of attention and memory is strong, and NO acts as a neuromodulator affecting the release of various neurotransmitters, influencing mood, motivation and cognition. Older individuals with mild to moderate cognitive impairment show significantly lower levels of NO metabolites compared to healthy age-matched controls. This suggests that adequate NO availability supports attention, memory and cognitive functions, and may exert protective effects against neurodegenerative diseases [4,5]. As John Locke [6] formulated: Nothing exists in the mind which was not first in the senses. Sensualistic noetics, as the basis of modern philosophy, emphasizes experience as the source of knowledge and moral action. Research on NO extends this idea by uncovering biological mechanisms that enable sensory experience to be encoded, consolidated and integrated. NO provides the molecular basis for learning, memory and attention - the very tools through which philosophical reflection and knowledge are possible. Thus, NO research illustrates the "mechanism of experience" at the level of synapses, neurons and vascular regulation, linking biology with cognition and higher intellectual functions. This clearly demonstrates that a transdisciplinary combination of medicine, neuroscience, psychology and philosophy can overcome the "tunnel vision" of specialization that Kundera criticized.

Based on modern philosophy, the article shows how Newspeak forms and reinforces certain modes of truth, captures what can be perceived as reality in public discourse (Foucault). Newspeak is a part of an ideological structure that not only hides reality, but also shapes our desires and the way we perceive the world (Zizek). Newspeak reflects the processes of simulation and hyperreality of language, determines the loss of reference in the era of post-truth and simulacra (Baudrillard). True antagonisms can hide under the guise of a post-political consensus, forming the cynical mind of the speaking subjects. The article uses the methods of dis-course analysis, semiotic analysis, and the method of ideological criticism, which are applicable to the interpre-tation of official statements, Internet comments, memes, regulatory documents, and other sources of new-speak. The purpose of the research is to reveal the complex nature of newspeak, to determine the possibilities of its deconstruction.

Abstract Regarding proofs for the existence of God, two things are well known of St John Henry Newman. First, he was chary about aspects of the Christian Evidences, a great accumulation of Christian apologetics in which Paley’s writings occupied a central place. Second, that he favoured an argument from conscience as ‘a proof common to all, to high and low’. This paper examines what might have been behind Newman’s convictions. It argues that metaphysical and epistemological emphases of early modern philosophy had semantic repercussions for ‘standard’ apologetics such as St Thomas’ Five Ways. In a new social imaginary, they suffer distortion and lose vitality as they begin to be reprogrammed to operate according to modern epistemological canons. Similarly, Paleyan arguments from design as they appear in the Christian Evidences were built on an evidential standard perhaps notionally compelling but in reality false to how a person really comes to conviction about belief in God. In the end, this paper argues that there is an odd kinship between Newman’s argument from conscience and St Thomas’ Five Ways, if these latter are read in their intended medieval light rather than in a modern light.

This study aims to identify, classify, and synthesize the development of branches and schools of thought in philosophy based on the latest academic literature. The method used in this study is a Systematic Literature Review (SLR) with data search through the Google Scholar database using keywords such as schools of philosophy, branches of philosophy, and philosophy. Inclusion criteria included articles in English and Indonesian published between 2021 and 2025 that contain conceptual discussions of branches or schools of philosophy, while exclusion criteria included non-academic articles and popular works. Of the initial 200 articles, 15 studies met the criteria and were synthesized thematically. The results show five main branches (metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and aesthetics) and seven dominant schools (realism, idealism, pragmatism, existentialism, positivism, phenomenology, and postmodernism). The novelty of the study lies in the systematic mapping of the relationships between branches and schools. Its practical implications strengthen the foundation of the modern philosophy curriculum, while its contribution enriches epistemological understanding in contemporary philosophical studies.

Abstract This article elaborates on the yin-yang philosophy and its modern relevance. Through historical, linguistic, textual and contextual examinations, it first argues that no textual evidence has been found for the “perceptions” of yin and yang as a systematic philosophy prevailing before the late Warring States period, and that the dynamics of the yin-yang philosophy was deliberately downgraded to give way to the Dao philosophy in the imperial reconstruction during the Western Han dynasty. It is then focused on the contemporary relevance of yin-yang ideas by examining the strengths and weaknesses of the three paradigms commonly used to define the nature of and relations between yin and yang . It will finally investigate why the yin-yang philosophy has been resurfaced in the contemporary time and what kind of potentials it may encompass for comparative philosophy and inter-philosophical dialogue.

This work explores the evolution of the concept of humility from medieval art to the modern philosophies of Schleiermacher and Schopenhauer. In the Middle Ages, humility was expressed as a theological and aesthetic virtue at the service of the divine and the community. Schleiermacher re-signified it as an existential openness to the Absolute, while Schopenhauer secularized it as compassion and the renunciation of the ego in the face of suffering. Through a hermeneutic-comparative approach, it is evident that humility constitutes a fundamental symbolic and anthropological axis for understanding transcendence and rethinking the current fragile human condition.