Mixed Metal Research Articles

Removal of Congo red dye from wastewater using clay supported mixed metal oxides nano-composite for sustainable environmental remediation using green chemistry

ABSTRACT In this work, a nanocomposite material based on kaolin – mixed metal oxides (derived from H21[B3W39O132].69 h2O) was successfully synthesized by simple co-precipitation and wet impregnation method and characterized by various spectrochemical methods. Then their adsorption potential was explored using anionic Congo red (CR) dye under variable factors of time, dose, temperature, agitation rate and pH. The composite K-Al-{BW11}@Kao exhibited the hybrid characteristic of kaolin and mixed metal oxides. Successful distribution of mixed metal oxides K-Al-{BW11} on kaolin was confirmed by morphological analysis. This distribution enhanced the adsorption capacity of the kaolin for anionic dye removal. K-Al-{BW11}@Kao removed 91.02 ± 1.22% dye in 35 min, using 0.05 g composite. The adsorption kinetics of CR best fitted pseudo 2nd order model, which indicated that the rate limiting step was chemisorption. The qmax values of CR adsorption on kaolin and K-Al-{BW11}@Kao were 11.3 ± 0.03 and 17 ± 0.02 mg/g respectively. A higher value of Langmuir R2 coefficient and thermodynamics studies indicated that the chemisorption of CR by KAO was spontaneous and exothermic in nature. This work offers a facile method for producing bifunctional material for the adsorption of Congo red dye.

Nanoscale Mixed Ion-Electron-Conducting NASICON-Type Thin Films: Lithium Titanium Phosphate via Atomic Layer Deposition.

Advancements in ionic devices for energy applications (e.g., solid-state microbatteries, ionic capacitors, ion-tunable transistors, etc.) require significant development of compatible materials and fabrication processes to enable high-performance conduction and storage of ions. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) enables fabrication of solid-state devices with high energy and power densities due to the complex structures made possible by its angstrom-scale thickness control and high conformality. The ionic conductivity of thin film materials fabricated by ALD has been limited by material development and crystallinity control challenges, as suitable materials must be fabricated with both the appropriate composition and crystal structure. A mixed metal phosphate like LiTi2(PO4)3 (LTP) is a prime candidate to push the boundary of ALD ionic materials due to the fast Li+-conducting NASICON-type crystalline phase. We developed a mixed ion-electron conducting NASICON-type thin film ALD process for LiTi2(PO4)3 suitable for microbattery and pseudocapacitor applications. Compositional tunability was achieved by alternating between constituent lithium oxide (Li2O) and titanium phosphate (TiPO) subprocesses. By adjusting the ratio between Li2O and TiPO cycles, the Li content in LTP can be tuned between 8 and 34 atomic % Li. A NASICON-type crystalline structure is observed after postdeposition annealing of the LTP films between 650 and 850 °C. The semicrystalline LTP thin film has an ionic conductivity of 9.3 × 10-7 S/cm at RT and 1.7 × 10-5 S/cm at 80 °C and an electronic conductivity of 2.5 × 10-7 S/cm at RT. In this work, we discuss the complexities of how tuning the composition of LTP influences film properties such as structure and conductivity in the mixed metal phosphate phase space.

Mix Metal Thermal Stabilizer from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a widely utilized material across various fields, however, it is prone to thermal degradation, even at temperatures as low as 70°C. To enhance its thermal stability, the addition of thermal stabilizers is essential. Mixed metal stabilizers are among the most environmentally friendly and effective options, composed of carboxylate acids and a combination of alkaline earth and transition metals. This study aims to synthesize a Ca/Zn based mixed metal stabilizer using Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD), a locally available raw material with significant potential as a source of carboxylate acid. The synthesized stabilizer, termed "Ca/Zn palmat," utilizes calcium (Ca) and zinc (Zn), chosen for their non-toxic properties. FTIR analysis confirmed the successful formation of Ca/Zn carboxylate groups from PFAD. The optimal Ca:Zn ratio was determined to be 4:1, providing a PVC stability time of approximately 15 minutes based on the Congo red test. The ideal stabilizer dosage was found to be 7 phr (parts per hundred resin). Furthermore, the addition of pentaerythritol as a co-stabilizer demonstrated a synergistic effect, significantly enhancing the thermal stability of PVC.

Advanced Deposition Methods for Mixed Metal Alloys and Hydroxides as High-Performance Catalysts for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

Advanced Deposition Methods for Mixed Metal Alloys and Hydroxides as High-Performance Catalysts for the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction

Screening of Azolla caroliniana for Metal Related Bio-Potential Factors

Heavy metals are widespread environmental contaminants that raise significant concerns due to their toxic, persistent, and non-biodegradable nature. Understanding the biological interactions of metals within plants is essential for the phytoremediation process, as it sheds light on the plants' ability to absorb metals, their movement within plant tissues, and their accumulation in above-ground biomass. This study aims to analyze the Bioconcentration Factor (BCF), Bioaccumulation Factor (BAF), Metal Enrichment Factor (MEF), and Metal Translocation Factor (MTF) of the floating macrophyte species Azolla caroliniana through a hydroponic bioassay. The aquatic vascular plant Azolla caroliniana was examined for its capacity to remove heavy metals. A hydroponic bioassay utilizing a synthetic metal solution was conducted from June 2018 to December 2022, exposing Azolla caroliniana to a mixed metal solution to assess its ability to absorb, transfer, accumulate, and enrich heavy metals, thereby evaluating its potential for phytoremediation. The results of this study underscored the metal phytoremediation capabilities and accumulation patterns of ten heavy metals: As, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, and Zn across different plant organs of Azolla caroliniana. The findings revealed that the order of BCF for the metals was Fe>Zn>Mn>Cu>Pb>Cd>Cr>Ni>Co>Sr>As, while the MEF order was Fe>Zn>Cu>Mn>Pb>Cd>Cr>Ni>Co>Sr>As. The ranking of BAF for the studied metals was Fe>Zn>Mn>Cu>Cd>Pb>Cr>Ni>Co>Sr>As, and the MTF order was Ni>Cu>Mn>Cd>Zn>Co>Pb>As>Cr>Fe>Sr. Importantly, Azolla caroliniana demonstrated hyperaccumulation for Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Pb, Ni, Co, Cr, Sr, and As, as indicated by a BCF greater than 1.

Association of blood trace metals with anemia in children aged 6-17 years old.

Association of blood trace metals with anemia in children aged 6-17 years old.

Electrochromic Efficiency in AxB(1−x)Oy-Type Mixed Metal Oxide Alloys

Electrochromic materials have a wide range of energy-effective applications, such as in mirrors, smart windows, automobile sunroofs, and display devices. The electrochromic behavior of mixed metal oxides is focused on in this review. Extra heat absorbed by buildings is one of the major problems in our modern era, so electrochromic films have been used as components of smart windows to reduce heat absorption through glass windows. Transition metal (W, V, Ti, Mo, and Ni) oxides are considered popular electrochromic materials for this purpose. Smart windows consist of electrochromic material layers (such as metal oxide layers) and solid electrolytes sandwiched between transparent conductive layers. Few publications have studied the use of mixtures of different metal oxides as electrochromic materials. This study focuses on the results of investigations of such multicomponent materials, such as the effects on the electrochromic properties of mixed metal oxides and how they contrast with pure metal oxides. Reviewing these papers, we found WO3- and MoO3-based mixtures to be the most promising, especially the magnetron-sputtered, amorphous WO3(40%)–MoO3(60%) composition, which had 200–300 cm2/C coloration efficiency. The mixed oxide materials reported in this review have room for development (and even commercialization) in the oxide-based electrochromic device market.

Influence of CO2-induced acidification and temperature increased on the toxicity of metals in sediment in the mussel Mytella charruana

Environmental and climate changes have placed increasing pressure on the resilience of marine ecosystems. In addition to these transformations, coastal environments are also affected by anthropogenic stressors, such as metal contamination. Bivalves play a crucial ecological role in marine and estuarine ecosystems. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of CO2-induced acidification, warming, and mixed metals contamination on the mangrove mussel Mytella charruana. We evaluated DNA damage (strand breaks), lipid peroxidation (LPO) levels, and reduced glutathione (GSH) content, as well as the enzymatic activities of glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in the gills and digestive glands. Additionally, neurotoxicity was assessed in muscle tissues through acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity. Laboratory experiments were conducted using sediments spiked with metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, and Hg), alongside a control group (non-spiked sediments), combining with three pH levels (7.5, 7.1, and 6.7) and two temperatures (25 and 27°C). Five mussels per treatment (four replicates) were exposed for 96 h. Two pools of two organisms each were separated per replicate (n = 8) and their gills, digestive glands, and muscles were dissected for biochemical biomarkers analyses. Temperature increase and metal contamination were the primary factors modulating antioxidant responses in the gills and digestive glands, as well as AChE activity in the muscle. However, when combined with CO2-induced acidification, these stressors also affected DNA integrity and LPO. Acidification alone showed no effect for any biomarker analyzed. Higher IBR values indicated effects for combined metal exposure, even at concentrations below individual safety levels. Here, we provide insights from a short-term experiment on the complex interactions between predicted scenarios, in which climate change stressors influenced estuarine mussel responses when associated with a mixture of metals in sediments. These findings contribute to understanding of organismal responses in complex scenarios of contamination and climate change, particularly in estuarine environments.

A prospective study of early pregnancy metal concentrations and gestational diabetes mellitus based on a birth cohort in Northwest China

BackgroundExposure to metals during early pregnancy may affect maternal glucose metabolism. We were aimed to assess the associations between early pregnancy whole blood concentrations of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and magnesium (Mg) with GDM later in the second trimester among pregnant women in Northwest China.MethodsThis study included 5478 first-trimester pregnant women who participated in the birth cohort of the Northwest Women’s and Children’s Hospital between July 2018 and December 2023. Metal concentrations, basic demographic characteristics, lifestyle and behavior patterns were collected. An oral glucose tolerance test was performed in the second trimester. A generalized linear model was used to analyze the effects of metal concentrations on GDM. A two-piecewise regression model was adopted to examine the threshold effect and find out the turning point. Weighted Quantile Sum (WQS) regression was conducted using a dataset randomly split into training and validation sets at a 4:6 ratio to investigate the association between metal mixtures and GDM.ResultsCompared to the lowest tertile, the middle (RR = 0.82, 95%CI = 0.71, 0.95) and highest (RR = 0.84, 95%CI = 0.73, 0.97) tertiles of Ca concentrations could decrease the risk of GDM. However, the highest tertile of Cu concentration could increase the risk of GDM (RR = 1.18, 95%CI = 1.01, 1.39). Additionally, a non-linear relationship between Ca concentration with GDM and FPG was observed. The risk of GDM (RR = 0.08, 95%CI: 0.02, 0.31) and FPG (β=-0.56, 95%CI: -0.99, -0.12) decreased with 1 unit increase in ln-transformed Ca concentration below the turning point. However, the WQS index of maternal mixed metals was not correlated with the incidence of GDM (RR = 1.08, 95%CI = 0.98, 1.19).ConclusionsHigher Cu concentration during early pregnancy may increase the risk of GDM in mothers. Increased Ca concentration may reduce the risk of GDM and lower the concentration of FPG below the turning point. Our findings could provide an early marker for potentially modifiable risk factors associated with maternal glucose dysregulation during pregnancy.

Exploring the anti-colon cancer potential of febuxostat-based mixed metal complexes with 2,2′-bipyridine: MTT assay, toxicity evaluation, prediction profiles, and computational studies

Exploring the anti-colon cancer potential of febuxostat-based mixed metal complexes with 2,2′-bipyridine: MTT assay, toxicity evaluation, prediction profiles, and computational studies

A novel CuFe-Sb-SnO2 anode for efficient degradation of ciprofloxacin by enhancing hydroxyl radical production: Key role of Cu/Fe in accelerating electron transfer

A novel CuFe-Sb-SnO2 anode for efficient degradation of ciprofloxacin by enhancing hydroxyl radical production: Key role of Cu/Fe in accelerating electron transfer

Sol‐Gel Synthesized SiO2 Supported Ni‐Al LDH Nanocomposite Based Mixed‐Metal Oxide Catalyst for the Conversion of High GWP Gas From N2O to N2 and O2

AbstractLayered Double Hydroxides (LDH) are the 2D nanomaterials having the general formula [M1‐x2+Mx3+(OH)2]x+[Ax/n]n−.mH2O. They become one of the most promising catalysts for various applications because of their many unique properties, which include high surface area, uniform atomic level distribution, and acid‐base bifunctionality. In this work metal acetylacetonate was used as a precursor to synthesize Ni‐Al and its SiO2‐supported product by the nonaqueous sol‐gel method. PXRD, FT‐IR, TGA, BET surface area and pore volume analysis, Zeta potential, particle size analysis, SEM, TEM, and EDS analysis were used to characterize them. The mixed‐metal oxides were obtained by calcinations of the synthesized LDHs at 450 °C. The resulting mixed metal oxide was subsequently employed as a catalyst for the N2O decomposition process. When the SiO2: LDH ratio varied, these catalysts showed improved N2O decomposition at 450 °C with the changes of SiO2: LDH ratio. In the presence of SiO2: LDH ratios of (2:1) and (1:2), around 99.5% of N2O conversion was noted.

Catalytic Engineering of Waste Biomass‐Derived Nano‐Carbon for Ultra‐Low Detection of Lead and Mercury Ions

AbstractSensor‐based technologies are driving a revolution in environmental monitoring, enabling precise measurement and effective pollutant management. Accurate quantification of environmental pollutants is the foundation upon which remediation, protection, and policy enforcement solutions are built. These technologies ensure that environmental management strategies are data‐driven, precise, and responsive to real‐time conditions. This study has explored the sustainable yet effective development of sensor from parthenium hysterophorus waste biomass for detecting lead and mercury ions. The catalytic graphitization process has effectively converted plant biomass into graphitized carbon. A metal catalyst and specific functional groups are introduced to enhance the conductivity and sensitivity of the nanocomposite. The porous network of graphene‐like nanostructure, along with high crystallinity, is successfully developed, where the presence of silver, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen is confirmed through EDS and XPS. FE‐SEM images represent the layered structure of nanocomposite, while TEM has indicated the network of carbon structure with the distribution of silver nanoparticles on it. XRD spectra have shown a clear peak at 26°, which indicates the layered architecture with high crystallinity. CV study was also conducted to study the redox behavior of lead and mercury ions. DPASV study was conducted to study the sensitivity of lead and mercury ions. Nanocomposite also shows high selectivity in the mixed metal solution. It also shows high sensitivity with detection limits of 600 and 300 nM for lead and mercury ions. At the same time, a real sample study also showed a good response, where a detection limit of 400 nM was obtained for lead in tap water. The RSD calculated after studying the response with three different electrodes is 3.2%. The nanocomposite also represent high stability even after 60 days of storage. This study paves the way for developing sustainable nanomaterials from waste biomass for sensing heavy metal ions.

Kinetic and characteristic investigations on the conversion of cellulose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in the mixed metal salt system

Kinetic and characteristic investigations on the conversion of cellulose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in the mixed metal salt system

Unraveling the in-situ engineered mixed metal oxides anchored on activated carbon cloth as a flexible electrode material for electrochemical reduction of CO2 into formic acid

Unraveling the in-situ engineered mixed metal oxides anchored on activated carbon cloth as a flexible electrode material for electrochemical reduction of CO2 into formic acid

Metal-Organic Framework-Derived Zinc-Cobalt Oxide Materials as High-Performance Anodes for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell Application.

Due to the exhaustion of fossil fuels and rising concerns about environmental pollution, direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) have emerged as one of the prominent green energy solutions in recent decades. However, the commercialization of DMFCs faces a significant challenge due to the dependence on expensive noble-metal-based electrode materials and the issue of methanol crossover. Therefore, there has been growing interest in developing cost-effective, high-performance anode catalysts to enhance the methanol oxidation reaction (MOR). In this work, unexplored non-noble transition metal oxide materials, such as metal-organic framework (MOF)-derived ZnO, ZnCo2O4, and Zn2CoO4, were directly synthesized on Ni foam using a simple solvothermal method, followed by calcination. The MOR activity of all the materials was tested in a 0.5 M methanol solution under alkaline conditions. Due to the synergetic effect of combined metallic composition, mixed metal oxides exhibited superior performance. The order of MOR activity was measured to be ZnO < Zn2CoO4 < ZnCo2O4. Particularly, ZnCo2O4 exhibited the highest mass activity (42.64 mA mg-1) and geometric current density (166.28 mA cm-2), outperforming Zn2CoO4 (27.44 mA mg-1) and ZnO (12.72 mA mg-1). It also demonstrated the lowest onset potential of 1.32 V (vs RHE) compared to Zn2CoO4 (1.35 V) and ZnO (1.39 V) and maintained excellent long-term stability for 12 h at 1.5 V (vs RHE). Additionally, to determine the optimal methanol concentration, all electrocatalysts were tested across a range of methanol concentrations from 0.1 to 1 M, showing 0.5 M methanol as the most suitable concentration. This study aims to develop cost-effective MOF-derived electrode materials and optimize methanol concentration to maximize catalytic activity. Furthermore, it establishes a foundation for the development of various MOF-derived electrocatalysts and the advancement of DMFC technology.

Urinary metal levels and their association with Parkinson's disease risk: insights from NHANES 2013-2020.

Parkinson's disease (PD) poses a significant public health challenge worldwide, with both genetic predispositions and behavioral factors contributing to its onset and progression. While the precise mechanisms underlying PD remain uncertain, environmental influences are increasingly acknowledged as critical risk factors. This research focused on investigating the relationship between urinary metal levels and the likelihood of developing PD. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), urinary levels of nine metals-barium (Ba), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), cesium (Cs), molybdenum (Mo), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), thallium (Tl), and uranium (Tu)-were measured in a cohort of 3,148 US adults. To examine their association with Parkinson's disease (PD) risk, multivariate logistic regression, weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression, and quantile regression were employed to evaluate both single and combined metal exposures. Additionally, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) was utilized to explore the joint effects of these metals, allowing for the assessment of potential nonlinear and non-additive interactions (using the "BKMR" package). Smooth curve fitting was further applied to visualize the nonlinear relationships between urinary metal concentrations and PD risk. In the single-exposure model, Mo, Tu and Cd were positively correlated with the risk of PD, with odds ratios (OR) ranging from 4.61 to 5.46 (all p < 0.05). Mixed-exposure analyses showed a consistent association (OR 1.48, 95% CI 1.06 to 2.06). The metals with the highest weight in the WQS model were Mo (56.79%), Co (34.20%), Ba (3.33%), and Tu (3.27%). In addition, BKMR model analysis showed that most single and mixed metals were positively associated with PD risk. Taken together, the results suggest that metal concentrations can increase the prevalence of PD. In conclusion, this cross-sectional analysis of NHANES data indicates that higher urinary concentrations of metals including Mo, Cd, and Tu are associated with increased odds of PD among US adults. Mixed exposures to several metals may jointly elevate PD risk in a dose-dependent manner.

NiFe2O4 Nanoparticles as Highly Sensitive Electrochemical Sensor for Nitrite Determination

ABSTRACTTaking into account the harmful influence of superfluous nitrite content onto the ecosystem and human health, sensitive and real‐time estimation of its concentration by developing reduced cost and efficient catalytic surfaces seems as a vital problem to be solved. Herein, a sensing platform for nitrite ions in water samples was designated based on mixed transition metal oxides. NiFe2O4 nanoparticles were fabricated using a simple and straightforward sol–gel protocol followed by calcination at 900°C. Convenient physical characterization tools were employed to investigate the crystal structure, morphological, chemical composition, and the elemental mapping distribution of this formed nanocomposite. The cubic spinel crystal structure of NiFe2O4 was confirmed using XRD and TEM analyses. The average crystallite size was estimated as 25.70 nm for a wide particle size distribution range between 10 and 50 nm. Cyclic voltammetric study revealed pronounced oxidation current density at NiFe2O4 nanomaterial when contrasted to that of Fe3O4 by 1.283 times. The influence of altering the scan rate and electrolyte pH during the relevant electrochemical measurements onto the electroactivity of this mixed oxide nanostructure was evaluated. Some kinetic parameters for nitrite ions oxidation reaction at NiFe2O4 nanocomposite were estimated including Tafel slope (59.96 mV dec−1), exchange current density (2.13 × 10−7 A cm−2), diffusion coefficient (1.178 × 10−3 cm2 s−1), and electron transfer rate constant (2.074 × 10−3 cm s−1) values. A wide linear concentration range towards nitrite ions with outstanding sensitivity of 70.57 nA μM−1 cm−2 and lowered detection limit of 23.9 nM could be monitored using NiFe2O4 nanopowder. These encouraging results might focus further efforts for synthesizing binary transition metal oxides with surprising activity towards numerous analytes determination.

Interfering with proton and electron transfer enables antibacterial starvation therapy.

Implant-associated infections are urgently addressed; however, existing materials are difficult to kill bacteria without damaging cells. Here, we propose an innovative concept of selective antibacterial starvation therapy based on interfering with proton and electron transfer on the bacterial membrane. As a proof-of-principle demonstration, a special Schottky heterojunction film composed of gold and alkaline magnesium-iron mixed metal oxides (Au/MgFe-MMO) was constructed on the titanium implant. Once bacteria contacted this implant, the Au/MgFe-MMO film continuously captured the proton and electron participated in respiratory chain of bacteria to impede their energy metabolism, leading to the deficit of adenosine 5'-triphosphate. Prolonged exposure to this starvation state inhibited numerous biosynthesis processes and triggered severe oxidative stress in bacteria, ultimately leading to their death due to DNA and membrane damage. In addition, this heterojunction film was comfortable for mammalian cells, without inhibiting mitochondrial function. This proposed starvation antibacterial therapy gives a notable perspective in designing biosafe smart antibacterial biomaterials.

Molecular precursor pathway to Co1−xNixNb2O6 for photocatalytic dye degradation: Optical and charge transport studies

AbstractA new approach for the formation of binary and ternary mixed metal oxides, namely, CoNb2O6, NiNb2O6, and Co0.5Ni0.5Nb2O6, through a modified single‐source molecular precursor route was investigated. By optimizing the annealing temperature, heating/cooling rates and holding times, the phase compositions of thermal processing of mixtures of oxalate‐based complexes [M(bpy)3]2[NbO(C2O4)3]Cl·nH2O (M = Co2+ (1) or/and Ni2+ (2); n = 11, 12) and (NH4)3[NbO(C2O4)3]·3H2O (3) were evaluated. Phase‐pure columbite oxides Co1−xNixNb2O6 (x = 0, 0.5, and 1) were obtained in one step by heating the mixtures of two (1 and 3, or 2 and 3) or three oxalate complexes (1 and 2 and 3) at 1200°C for 10 h with a heating/cooling rate of 10°C min−1. The (micro)structure, morphology, and optical properties of the as‐prepared materials were characterized by powder X‐ray diffraction (PXRD), field‐emission scanning electron microscopy (FE‐SEM) and ultraviolet–visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV–Vis DRS). Impedance spectroscopy was used to investigate the electrical and dielectric properties, providing valuable insights into the charge transport dynamics. The CoNb2O6 exhibits the greatest conductivity in the series (2.64 × 10−11 Ω−1 cm−1 at 120°C), two orders of magnitude greater than those of NiNb2O6 and Co0.5Ni0.5Nb2O6. The ternary oxide Co0.5Ni0.5Nb2O6 has a minimum in conductivity and dielectric loss, but it shows a maximum in dielectric permittivity. Estimated band gap energies of CoNb2O6, NiNb2O6, and Co0.5Ni0.5Nb2O6 within the visible light excitations prompt us to investigate their photocatalytic activities in the degradation of the methylene blue (MB) dye under visible light irradiation without and with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). It is evident that the Co1−xNixNb2O6/H2O2 systems exhibit higher photocatalytic activity: the degradation efficiency of MB was found to be between 26% and 38%. In addition, the cyclic stability of the photocatalyst was investigated and a possible proposed photocatalytic degradation mechanism was substantiated by a scavenger analysis study.