Millet Agriculture Research Articles

Downy mildew of millets - An overview

Amidst global food insecurity, malnutrition, agricultural challenges, and climate change, millet farming is emerging as a viable alternativedue to its high nutritional value, resilience to extreme weather conditions, and adaptability to marginal soils. Often referred to as “super-crops”, millets gained international recognition in March 2021 during the 75th session of the United Nations General Assembly. Millets rank among the most important crops globally, following rice, wheat, maize, and sorghum. However, they are susceptible to more than fifty diseases, with the most destructive being ‘Downy Mildew’. This disease is caused by oomycete pathogens such as Sclerospora graminicola, Peronosclerospora sorghi and Sclerophthora macrospora, posing a significant threat to millet production, with yield losses ranging from 50% to 100%. This review emphasizes the importance of millet and the devastating effects of downy mildew on its yields. It explores the physiological and histological changes induced by the disease, the characterization of effector protein, and the genetic variability in millet populations. Additionally, various management techniques for combating downy mildew are examined, including chemical treatments, induced resistance, organic-based approaches, cultural practices, resistant genotypes, and advancements in nanotechnology. By compiling current knowledge on millet disease and effective management strategies, this review aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and farmers, supporting sustainable millet farming and improving global food security.

Diachronic evolution in subsistence strategies of ancient humans from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in the Western Liaohe River Basin and its influencing factors

The Western Liaohe River Basin, rich in prehistoric cultures, is one of the significant origins of Chinese civilization. However, what is the subsistence basis that supports the development of prehistoric cultures in this region? More importantly, which role did agriculture play in the development of various prehistoric cultures? Which factors drive the diachronic evolution in subsistence strategies? These issues are worthy of study. Based on this, we systematically collected zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical, and stable isotope data from various prehistoric archeological cultural sites spanning from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in the Western Liaohe River Basin, attempting to explore their economic characteristics, evolution process as well as driving factor. The study found that in the Western Liaohe River Basin, the cultivation of millet crops may have begun as early as the Xiaohexi cultural period, and domestic pigs and dogs may have occurred in the Xinglongwa cultural period (Xionglongwa and Xionglonggou site respectively). However, during Hongshan cultural period, collection and hunting (cervids) remained the main subsistence strategy. In the Lower Xiajiadian cultural period, millet agriculture and domestic pig breeding replaced gathering and hunting, as the predominant subsistence strategy. This subsistence pattern was also adopted by subsequent Upper Xiajiadian cultural populations, and in some areas, animal husbandry developed during this period. We analyze that the evolution of the subsistence strategies of the prehistoric humans in this region may be related with Holocene climate change. Meanwhile, other factors such as improvements in production technology, population pressure and the environmental impacts they brought may also play a role. This study reveals the evolution process of subsistence strategies of prehistoric cultures in the Western Liaohe River Basin, and is of great significance in understanding the relationship between subsistence evolution of ancient populations and environmental changes in northern China.

Human diet and social complexity during the middle and late Dawenkou period at the Jiaojia Site, China

Scholars have usually examined social complexity of the Dawenkou culture, Neolithic China through mortuary rituals, and have long assumed that there was graduated development of both social stratification and gender inequality. The newly discovered Jiaojia cemetery dated to the middle and late Dawenkou period, provides us a valuable opportunity to investigate the development of social complexity with a different perspective. We carried out stable isotopic analysis of human and animal bones from the Jiaojia site to explore the relationship between human diet and social complexity. The results indicate that Jiaojia people’s diets are dominated by C4 foods (i. e. foxtail and broomcorn millet), and the contribution of C4 foods increased significantly over time, suggesting the further development of millet farming. In addition, there were signs of food-based social stratification in the late phase of the Jiaojia site, more C3 foods and meat were consumed by some elites. However, the dietary difference between males and females was not significant. This study demonstrates that dietary studies can be a valuable lens to examine the development of social complexity, and it also confirms that social complexity should be examined through multiple dimensions, mortuary practice is only one of them.

Parasites provide evidence for fish consumption among Iron Age Siberian pastoralists

The subsistence economies of prehistoric pastoralists of the Eurasian steppes have long been viewed through an oversimplified model of reliance on domesticated animals. This conceptualization has begun to shift dramatically through the introduction of scientific analyses, pivoting towards an evidence-based interpretation of economic flexibility and adaptive heterogeneity. Here we provide insights into the dietary practices of Iron Age pastoralists in Siberia through an archaeoparasitological analysis. Soil samples from the Tunnug 1 site in southern Siberia reveal the presence of helminth eggs of Taenia sp. (likely), Trichuris sp., and Dibothriocephalus sp. This indicates that the diet of the analysed prehistoric population might have included beef and did include freshwater fish, occasionally consumed in undercooked or raw form. Despite the primary reliance on pastoralism and possibly small-scale millet agriculture, these populations engaged in diverse dietary practices, including fish consumption. Additionally, the presence of Trichuris sp. eggs points to poor sanitary conditions, possible consumption of contaminated plant foods, and the contamination of drinking water with feces. By providing direct evidence of dietary habits, archaeoparasitology complements isotopic analyses and contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the subsistence strategies.

Can Institutional Interventions be Profitable for Millet Farming in India’s Rainfed Regions? Insights from MESR Models

Can Institutional Interventions be Profitable for Millet Farming in India’s Rainfed Regions? Insights from MESR Models

Construction of Knowledge Test to Measure the Knowledge Level of the Millet Farmers of Bundelkhand Region, Uttar Pradesh, India

Construction of Knowledge Test to Measure the Knowledge Level of the Millet Farmers of Bundelkhand Region, Uttar Pradesh, India

Genetic history and biological adaptive landscape of the Tujia people inferred from shared haplotypes and alleles

BackgroundHigh-quality genomic datasets from under-representative populations are essential for population genetic analysis and medical relevance. Although the Tujia are the most populous ethnic minority in southwestern China, previous genetic studies have been fragmented and only partially reveal their genetic diversity landscape. The understanding of their fine-scale genetic structure and potentially differentiated biological adaptive features remains nascent.ObjectivesThis study aims to explore the demographic history and genetic architecture related to the natural selection of the Tujia people, focusing on a meta-Tujia population from the central regions of the Yangtze River Basin.ResultsPopulation genetic analyses conducted on the meta-Tujia people indicate that they occupy an intermediate position in the East Asian North-South genetic cline. A close genetic affinity was identified between the Tujia people and neighboring Sinitic-speaking populations. Admixture models suggest that the Tujia can be modeled as a mixture of northern and southern ancestries. Estimates of f3/f4 statistics confirmed the presence of ancestral links to ancient Yellow River Basin millet farmers and the BaBanQinCen-related groups. Furthermore, population-specific natural selection signatures were explored, revealing highly differentiated functional variants between the Tujia and southern indigenous populations, including genes associated with hair morphology (e.g., EDAR) and skin pigmentation (e.g., SLC24A5). Additionally, both shared and unique selection signatures were identified among ethnically diverse but geographically adjacent populations, highlighting their extensive admixture and the biological adaptations introduced by this admixture.ConclusionsThe study unveils significant population movements and genetic admixture among the Tujia and other ethno-linguistically diverse East Asian groups, elucidating the differentiated adaptation processes across geographically diverse populations from the current genetic landscape.

Synthesis of human isotopic data (8000–5000 BP) reveals subsistence strategies and social complexity at the southeast edge of the Loess Plateau, China

AbstractThe southeast edge of the Loess Plateau (SELP) is a crucial area for studying subsistence strategies and social complexity in prehistoric China. Currently, no systematic isotopic study has been conducted to reveal shifts in subsistence strategies and their link to the trajectory of social complexity. This paper compiles previously published isotopic data from human and fauna bones at 24 sites dating from 8000 to 5000 BP, aiming to uncover diachronic changes in subsistence strategies and their relationship with social complexity. The results indicate a gradual increase in millet consumption by humans and an increasing utilization of millet‐based byproducts as feed for domestic animals (pigs and dogs) over time. The isotopic data of humans and animals demonstrate the establishment of millet agriculture during the Early Yangshao period (7000–6000 BP). Millet agriculture creates a crucial material foundation for population growth and cultural prosperity. Two modes of millet cultivation, intensive and extensive, are proposed to explain the continuous development of millet agriculture since the Early Yangshao period. Finally, significant dietary heterogeneity among the human population during the Late Yangshao period strongly suggests the emergence of social differentiation and complexity, supported by other archaeological evidence such as settlement hierarchies and the presence of exquisite objects in burials.

Impact of Potassium Fertilization on Growth and Yield of Small Millets

Aims: To evaluate the impact of varying potassium application levels on the growth and yield of small millets and to assess the economic viability of potassium fertilization in small millet farming. Methodology: A split plot design experiment was carried out, featuring four crops as the main treatments: C1 - Proso millet, C2 - Barnyard millet, C3 - Kodo millet, and C4 - Browntop millet. Potassium fertilizer was applied at four different rates (0, 10, 20, and 30 kg/ha) as sub-treatments. Throughout the cropping period, various morpho-physiological traits were monitored, including plant height (cm), tiller count per plant, and yield-related metrics such as the number of panicles per plant, 1000-grain weight (g), and biomass production per plant (g). At harvest, yield data and yield attributes were recorded, followed by an economic analysis. Results: The results indicated that, Proso millet showed a plant height increase from 75.85 to 94.37 cm, number of productive tillers (4.73) with high potassium doses, while Barnyard millet reached a maximum height of 119.13 cm, grain yield significantly increased from 1547 kg/ha without potassium to 2055 kg/ha with the highest potassium dose. Barnyard millet (achieving the highest gross return of Rs 61650/ha and a B: C ratio of 2.20 with the highest potassium dose. Conclusion: Application of potassium 20 kg/ha, along with the recommended dose of nitrogen and phosphorus, recorded 31.8% higher yield, greater tolerance to lodging, reduced pest and disease incidence and remunerative economics in millet cultivation.

Profile characteristics of tribal millet farmers in Kerala

Profile characteristics of tribal millet farmers in Kerala

Knowledge Based Millet Trainings for Sustainable Nutritional Security in the Tribal Communities of Andhra Pradesh

India, home to the world's largest tribal population of 10.43 crore as per the 2021 census, heavily relies on millet farming for food security in tribal communities. Millets, often termed Nutri-cereals or superfoods, are resilient to poor soil and harsh climates and provide essential nutrients like iron, calcium, and dietary fiber, addressing widespread nutritional deficiencies. Despite their advantages, millet farming faces significant challenges due to climate change, land degradation, water scarcity, and rising food prices. The research sampled with 240 women from three Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) in the Alluri Sitharamaraju (ASR) district was included for the study. Structured interview Schedule and a five-point continuum were used to evaluate the tribal women views towards training given on millet cultivation, post-harvest practices, and value addition techniques. Findings revealed a general positive response to the training, particularly in areas like field preparation and nutrient management. However, challenges persist, such as limited access to resources, modern processing equipment, and proper storage facilities. Addressing these issues is crucial for improving the livelihoods of tribal women and promoting sustainable agricultural practices. Enhanced infrastructure, timely financial support, and continuous capacity-building are essential for maximizing the benefits of millet farming in tribal areas, contributing to food security and economic development.

Shree Anna (Millets): Promoting Nutrition and Sustainability in Agricultural Millets Map of India

Shree Anna, an initiative dedicated to promoting the cultivation and consumption of millets in India, stands at the forefront of efforts to enhance nutrition and sustainability in agriculture. Central to its mission is the creation of the Millets Map of India, which showcases the diverse regions where millets are cultivated across the country. From Karnataka to Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu to Uttar Pradesh, the map highlights the geographical spread of millet cultivation, emphasizing their nutritional value and environmental resilience. Through educational programs, farmer training, and consumer awareness campaigns, Shree Anna aims to underscore the nutritional benefits of millets while advocating for their sustainable cultivation. By fostering market demand and economic opportunities for millet farmers, the initiative seeks to create a more inclusive and resilient agricultural ecosystem. The Millets Map of India serves as a visual testament to the transformative potential of millets in promoting nutrition, sustainability, and food security in India's agricultural landscape.

Integration of animal husbandry and millet agriculture in Bronze Age East-central Eurasia revealed by faunal stable isotopes at the Jirentai Goukou site, Xinjiang

How food globalization in the Bronze Age influenced the economies and societies of regions along the Eurasian continent has attracted widespread attention. As an integral part of this food globalization, previous studies have focused on the impact of the westwards spread of millet crops on the human populations of East-Central Eurasia. However, the relationship between millet crops and key subsistence economies, such as animal husbandry, which humans rely on in East-Central Eurasia, remains unclear. Here, we carry out a new stable isotope study of 68 domesticated faunal bones from Bronze Age Jirentai Goukou site, Xinjiang, and combine about 1500 published stable isotope data of human and faunal bones to explore systemically the relationship between animal husbandry and millet agriculture in Bronze Age East-Central Eurasia. Our study reveals first the integration of animal husbandry and millet agriculture in Bronze Age Xinjiang, which is indicated by the adoption of C4 millet byproducts to feed domesticated sheep/goats and cattle. Further wide-range stable isotopic analysis in Bronze Age East-Central Eurasia highlights the existence of two different patterns in the relationship between animal husbandry and millet agriculture: the Central Plains pattern and the Inner Asia pattern. These differences can be expressed clearly in several aspects, including the species of domesticated herbivores fed, the degree, method and seasonality of feeding sheep/goats and cattle, and the composition of fodder. On this basis, the possible reasons for the different patterns in the relationship between millet agriculture and animal husbandry in East-Central Eurasia are further explored, such as the different histories of agricultural and pastoral development between the Central Plains and Inner Asia, the distinct characteristics of agriculture and pastoralism (sedentary and mobile), and the specific social, economic/political and geographical environments. Our study provides important information for understanding the specific impact of the globalization of millet agriculture on the animal husbandry economy in Bronze Age Eurasia.

Adoption of organic soil fertility measures and their impact on farm outcomes: a case study of millet cultivators in India

This article investigated the economic impact of adopting organic soil fertility measures (OSFM) on millet farming outcomes in rainfed regions of rural India. Using survey data from 900 millet farmers, the analysis applied an endogenous switching regression model to correct for selection bias arising from both observable and unobservable factors. The results indicated that factors such as soil type, use of farmyard manure, crop diversification, gender of the household head, access to agricultural resources, proximity to residence and markets and education levels significantly influenced farmers’ adoption of OSFM. Notably, the adoption of OSFM had a positive and statistically significant impact on farm profits, with OSFM adopters gaining ₹5998 more than nonadopters. The average treatment effect on the treated for OSFM was 9.80% higher than for non-OSFM farmers. These findings reinforcing the importance of promoting OSFM practices in similar rainfed farming regions of the country.

Multiple Human Population Movements and Cultural Dispersal Events Shaped the Landscape of Chinese Paternal Heritage.

Large-scale genomic projects and ancient DNA innovations have ushered in a new paradigm for exploring human evolutionary history. However, the genetic legacy of spatiotemporally diverse ancient Eurasians within Chinese paternal lineages remains unresolved. Here, we report an integrated Y-chromosome genomic database encompassing 15,563 individuals from both modern and ancient Eurasians, including 919 newly reported individuals, to investigate the Chinese paternal genomic diversity. The high-resolution, time-stamped phylogeny reveals multiple diversification events and extensive expansions in the early and middle Neolithic. We identify four major ancient population movements, each associated with technological innovations that have shaped the Chinese paternal landscape. First, the expansion of early East Asians and millet farmers from the Yellow River Basin predominantly carrying O2/D subclades significantly influenced the formation of the Sino-Tibetan people and facilitated the permanent settlement of the Tibetan Plateau. Second, the dispersal of rice farmers from the Yangtze River Valley carrying O1 and certain O2 sublineages reshapes the genetic makeup of southern Han Chinese, as well as the Tai-Kadai, Austronesian, Hmong-Mien, and Austroasiatic people. Third, the Neolithic Siberian Q/C paternal lineages originated and proliferated among hunter-gatherers on the Mongolian Plateau and the Amur River Basin, leaving a significant imprint on the gene pools of northern China. Fourth, the J/G/R paternal lineages derived from western Eurasia, which were initially spread by Yamnaya-related steppe pastoralists, maintain their presence primarily in northwestern China. Overall, our research provides comprehensive genetic evidence elucidating the significant impact of interactions with culturally distinct ancient Eurasians on the patterns of paternal diversity in modern Chinese populations.

Culinary continuity in central Japan across the transition to agriculture

Rice and millet arrived in Western Japan from Korea around 3,000 years ago and spread eastwards across the archipelago in the next 700 years. However, the extent to which agriculture transformed traditional Jōmon hunter-gatherer-fisher communities is debated. Central Japan is a key area of study as remodelling of radiocarbon dates shows a slowdown in the dispersal rate of rice agriculture in this area. Here, we examine and compare the use of pottery by Final Jōmon and Early to Middle Yayoi communities in the Tōkai and the Central Highland regions of central Japan, using lipid residue analysis. Although the identification of specific biomarkers for rice remains elusive, an increase in the ratio of E/H C18 APAAs with the arrival of rice and millet indicates a potential change in plant processing and consumption. We were also able to identify biomarkers for broomcorn millet (miliacin) in both Final Jōmon and Yayoi pottery. However, evidence for millet consumption is sparse and in all cases was likely mixed with wild hunted and foraged foods. We conclude therefore that, despite the introduction of rice and millet agriculture in central Japan, pre-existing diets and culinary habits of Jōmon hunter-gatherers remain important.

The Agricultural Economy of the Sanxingdui Culture (3700–3100 BP): Archaeological and Historical Evidence from the Chengdu Plain

Agriculture is a critical foundation for the development of large-scale complex and urban societies. Sanxingdui, located on the Chengdu Plain in western Sichuan and linked with the ancient Chinese Shu Kingdom, is one of the most distinctive archaeological sites in the world. However, despite its importance, the agricultural economy of the Sanxingdui culture and the Chengdu Plain remains poorly understood and heavily debated. This study synthesizes recent archaeological and historical evidence concerning the agricultural economy underpinning the increasing scale and social complexity at Sanxingdui and the greater Chengdu Plain prior to 2200 BP. Our analysis finds a mixed rice and dry-land millet farming economy, in conjunction with pig and chicken husbandry, during the Sanxingdui culture (3700–3100 BP). This integrated agricultural system likely began with the Baodun culture (4500–3700 BP), passing to the Sanxingdui culture (3700–3100 BP), Shierqiao culture (3100–2600 BP) and later, the Shu culture (2600–2300 BP). In addition, although gathering, hunting, and fishing accounted for relatively low proportions of the overall subsistence, the ancient peoples at Sanxingdui and across the Chengdu Plain continued these practices, supporting a diverse agricultural and food system. Understanding the subsistence at Sanxingdui offers key insights into the development of complex societies in southwest China, the contributions to Chinese culture, and the role of agriculture worldwide.

Early Holocene exploitation of taro and yam among southern East Asian hunter-gatherers

Increases in population size are associated with the adoption of Neolithic agricultural practices in many areas of the world, but rapid population growth within the Dingsishan cultural group of southern China pre-dated the arrival of rice and millet farming in this area. In this article, the authors identify starch grains from taros (Colocasia) and yams (Dioscorea) in dental calculus and on food-processing tools from the Dingsishan sites of Huiyaotian and Liyupo (c. 9030–6741 BP). They conclude that the harvesting and processing of these dietary staples supported an Early Holocene population increase in southern East Asia, before the spread of rice and millet farming.

The evolution of cropping structure in prehistoric Xizang

The origin and spread of agriculture facilitated a decline in human mobility and eventually led to a predominantly sedentary lifestyle globally, including on the Tibetan Plateau. Previous studies have proposed an evolution of prehistoric agriculture, from millet-based to barley-based farming. However, details regarding the process are vague. Here, we present diachronic changes in cropping structure from Xizang on the basis of a quantitative analysis of archaeobotanical remains from 12 sites located in southeastern Xizang. The advent of agriculture in Xizang began in the southeastern region around 4800 cal a BP and resulted in a quick spread of millet agriculture from the Hengduan Mountains to the Yarlung Zangbo River region. Subsequently, the introduction of barley and wheat in Xizang led to the transformation of millet-based farming into mixed farming after 3600 cal a BP. Eventually, around 3000 cal a BP, barley and wheat dominated across the entire Xizang with declining occurrences of millet. It took more than 600 years for barley and wheat to dominate in the Tibetan cropping system, which may reflect the time required for these exotic species to adapt physiologically to their new niche. In addition to the diachronic changes in crop farming, the ratio of barley to wheat and foxtail millet to broomcorn millet also varied at different elevations possibly due to local environmental variations and the crops’ physiological requirements.

Wood use and forest management by Neolithic millet farmers at the Xinglong site, northern China

Wood use and forest management by Neolithic millet farmers at the Xinglong site, northern China