Military Performance Research Articles

Legitimacy of Using Force as a Fundamental Ingredient for Military Motivation in Robust Peacekeeping Operations

ABSTRACT The notion of legitimacy is essential to motivate soldiers to fight in wars. However, the value of this factor to motivate in operations that do not involve the state’s vital interests – such as peacekeeping – is little explored. Drawing upon theories of the legitimate use of force and combat motivation, I argue that the UN legitimacy of using force to advance peacekeeping mandates is fundamental for the motivation of the blue helmets to carry out risky tasks and fight, as necessary, in robust PKOs. The article begins by proposing an operational definition of legitimacy to use force to advance peacekeeping mandates, a necessary step for effective communication with interviewees in subsequent empirical investigations. Then, it explores the connection between legitimacy and soldiers’ motivation to fight. Lastly, a case study based on interviews with dozens of blue helmets investigates perceptions of the legitimacy to use force and its motivational role in robust PKOs. The results reveal that positive perceptions of the mission legitimacy to use force increase the blue helmets’ motivation to accomplish risky tasks. Consequently, the article points to increasing awareness about the conditions that render the use of force legitimate as a way to improve military performances in robust PKOs.

Research on Intelligent Recommendation of Maintenance Scheme based on Multi-modal Data Learning

In view of the unavoidable degradation and damage to the performance and stability of military, medical, transportation and industrial equipment in the process of daily use, especially after long-term operation or shutdown, and the maintenance personnel cannot be timely in place, an intelligent recommendation technology or program for remote maintenance of equipment based on multi-modal data learning is studied. Multi-modal data such as text, pictures and videos are integrated. Based on image recognition and learning of multi-modal data, intelligent recommendation of remote maintenance solutions can be realized when maintenance personnel cannot arrive in time.

A primer on using Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate marksmanship

PurposeEvaluating warfighter lethality is a critical aspect of military performance. Raw metrics such as marksmanship speed and accuracy can provide some insight, yet interpreting subtle differences can be challenging. For example, is a speed difference of 300 milliseconds more important than a 10% accuracy difference on the same drill? Marksmanship evaluations must have objective methods to differentiate between critical factors while maintaining a holistic view of human performance.Design/methodology/approachMonte Carlo simulations are one method to circumvent speed/accuracy trade-offs within marksmanship evaluations. They can accommodate both speed and accuracy implications simultaneously without needing to hold one constant for the sake of the other. Moreover, Monte Carlo simulations can incorporate variability as a key element of performance. This approach thus allows analysts to determine consistency of performance expectations when projecting future outcomes.FindingsThe review divides outcomes into both theoretical overview and practical implication sections. Each aspect of the Monte Carlo simulation can be addressed separately, reviewed and then incorporated as a potential component of small arms combat modeling. This application allows for new human performance practitioners to more quickly adopt the method for different applications.Originality/valuePerformance implications are often presented as inferential statistics. By using the Monte Carlo simulations, practitioners can present outcomes in terms of lethality. This method should help convey the impact of any marksmanship evaluation to senior leadership better than current inferential statistics, such as effect size measures.

Impact of personality on cadet academic and military performance within mediating role of self-efficacy.

The current operational military environment is changing, complex, unpredictable, and ambiguous. Due to such situations, soldiers are constantly forced to think about their values, norms, and roles that should be part of their profession. Consequently, they must first be educated and trained on how to behave in a particular operational military environment. Pursuing an officer's education at military academies is very difficult not only physically but also psychologically. Cadets are required to be prepared to lead in extreme environments upon graduation. Despite the fact that military tasks are technically complex, the individual operational activities of soldiers are gaining more and more strategic meaning. Therefore, the importance of selecting the process and military education programs of soldiers is increasingly stressed. Cognitive abilities and skills individually predict performance in academic and professional settings, but it is less clear how personality can influence performance. Therefore, this study focused on the explanation of the individual factors that affect the achievements of the cadets. Specifically, the objective of this study was to examine direct and mediated relationships between personality traits and the military and academic performance of cadets. This study followed a quantitative method analysis. The research models were assessed using the structural equation modeling technique. Bootstrap was applied to evaluate a 95% level confidence interval on estimates with 5,000 bootstrap samples, and to evaluate direct and indirect effects. The analysis was based on a sample of 120 cadets from the Lithuanian Military Academy. The effects on military and academic performance were evaluated using the Self-Efficacy scale, the Big Five personality trait scale, academic performance was evaluated through academic grades and military performance was evaluated using instructor ratings. To support our hypotheses, it was found that self-efficacy has a mediating effect on the performance of cadets. Additionally, the traits of conscientiousness, openness to experience and extraversion were related to both military and academic performance. Furthermore, self-efficacy appeared as a partial mediator of the relationship between personality traits and cadet performance. The findings of this study help clarify the relationship between the personality traits of the cadets and the military and academic performance. In addition, these results may be useful for the further development of military education and training, for the development of testing, and selection of military personnel.

MAIN ACTIVITIES AND SPECIFICITY OF THE CONCERT REPERTOIRE OF MODERN RUSSIAN MILITARY BANDS

The article examines the main trends in the development of the concert repertoire of modern Russian military bands. At the beginning of the 21st century, the complexity and multidimensionality of military band art is obvious. Modern bands perform the task of providing music for military rituals, state, political, public, cultural and sports events, and take part in concerts and festivals. In this aspect, the issues of adapting music of various genres and directions for a brass band performance are of particular relevance. In the post-Soviet period, military bands retained their value guidelines. At the same time, they not only preserve traditions but also develop them in new conditions. In Russia, military bands are the most widespread musical embodiment of military culture, as well as an important element of military infrastructure which helps maintain morale. Currently, as before, they are widely used as a propaganda tool, including during public events. The article notes the variety of directions in the development of military band repertoire. In this context, it is important for the author to consider the main factors in the formation of the repertoire of the Central Military Band of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. The band’s repertoire range is extremely wide — from works of Russian and foreign classics to music by contemporary composers. The recognized reference sound recording of the Russian National Anthem was made by this band. Moreover, the study of the repertoire of educational groups seems significant. The band of the Valery Khalilov Moscow Suvorov Military Music College consists of young Suvorov students; nevertheless, despite the age of the musicians, it is a highly professional group that has demonstrated its performing skills not only in Russia but throughout the world. In conclusion, the significance of directions for actualizing the creative activity of modern military bands and the importance of studying the art of arrangement, which makes it possible to create adaptive forms of presenting historical memory, are noted. The preservation of the traditions of performing academic music is a crucial role of military bands. The concert activity of modern military bands, as a tool for adapting music of various styles to traditional for military culture performance conditions, seems to be an important way of transfering musical culture values in situations of social change.

Western Narratives and Russian Disinformation, Three Years into Great-Power Conflict

ABSTRACT This special issue here marks the third year of the Russia-Ukraine War. The included essays discuss Western narratives that explain pre-war perspectives of a potential conflict as well ongoing Russian disinformation campaigns. The introduction argues that expectations about a quick Russian victory, while proven wrong, had considerable reasoning, and that current expectations of Russian defeat are premature. Disinformation that targets Ukraine, the wider West, and even domestic Russian audiences, is discussed extensively in these pages. This information warfare is seen as an enduring and serious threat. Papers in this issue look at active-measures campaigns tied to both nuclear and biological weapons. Other pieces look to understand the poor military performance of the Russian military by explaining Moscow’s coup-proofing strategies; another approach looks to the shortcomings of military indoctrination and ideology since the 1990s.

Western Estimates of Russian Military Capabilities and the Invasion of Ukraine

ABSTRACT The poor performance of the Russian military during the invasion of Ukraine came as a surprise to many in the West. This prompted a debate about why Russian capabilities had been overestimated. Fingers were pointed at the work of Western military analysts who, in the eyes of some critics, had based their estimates almost entirely on numbers and technology, resulting in mistaken predictions of a quick and decisive Russian victory. It has since been suggested that changes to the practices of Western military analysis are required if similar future failures are to be avoided. This article takes stock of this debate, proposing that the reasons for Western overestimates of Russian military capabilities and the lessons to be learned from this are far more complex than suggested by the critics. Discussing the political nature of military assessments and defense debates, the problems inherent in military analysis, and the difficulties associated with predicting outcomes in war, it concludes that laying blame for overestimates of Russian military power on Western experts is a fallacy. Expectations of achieving accurate future military assessments by refining the analytical base need to be tempered.

Partnerships to Facilitate Total Force Fitness.

Total force fitness (TFF) is a multi-domain framework designed to assess, promote, and sustain human performance optimization across a service member's career arc. During the September 2021, TFF Summit sponsored by the Consortium for Health and Military Performance (CHAMP), a working group explored partnerships that could facilitate effective implementation and sustainment of TFF principles. Many potential partners were identified, both internal and external to the DoD. This report highlights some positions and organizations that provide the highest yield for successfully inculcating TFF across the services.

Total Force Fitness Education: A Critical Enabler ofHuman Performance Optimization.

Military health education has historically been focused on conveying the consequences of risky behaviors, informing about external resources, and addressing disease through mitigation and prevention. Total Force Fitness (TFF) and Human Performance Optimization (HPO) provide a broad and holistic framework for preventing health issues and bolstering performance. The Consortium for Health and Military Performance convened a workgroup at the TFF Summit in 2021 to discuss the current state of TFF/HPO in military health education efforts and to identify areas for improvement. An education workgroup of 42 attendees gathered to discuss the current state of TFF/HPO-based health education in the military. Four questions were posed to all members for discussion. Notes were taken and consolidated to obtain feedback and promote discussion from the attendees in a larger audience at the TFF Summit. The education workgroup identified several education formats, goals, initiatives, and opportunities for improving the development and dissemination of TFF/HPO-based health education throughout the Services. Workgroup members reached a consensus on health education formats (development, dissemination, and audience) and that the primary goal of education is knowledge dissemination and increasing awareness. They also identified several stellar examples of existing TFF/HPO initiatives and explored how health education can increase impact and be more sustainable. The workgroup outcomes were shared with the TFF Summit audience to generate further discussion and to outline action items. Seven action items were identified to improve the development and dissemination of TFF/HPO resources and ensure productive and effective initiatives and programs throughout the Department of Defense. The TFF Summit outlined several actionable items that would improve the development and dissemination of TFF/HPO-based health education throughout the Department of Defense's initiatives and programs. A broader approach to military health education that uses a TFF/HPO framework will directly impact the health and performance of the force. Ultimately, embedding TFF/HPO information into the fabric of military health education would shift the focus toward a holistic, proactive, preventive, and performance-based culture.

Total Force Fitness Summit 2021: Maximizing the Health and Well-being of Service Members and Their Families.

Total Force Fitness (TFF) is a multidomain, holistic framework that provides the Department of Defense (DoD) with the capability to assess, promote, and sustain human performance optimization across the full spectrum of components key to meeting mission requirements. On September 14 and 15, 2021, in Bethesda, MD, The Consortium for Health and Military Performance convened a second TFF Summit with the goal of promoting the mission of optimizing the health and well-being of our service members across their careers. Participants included scientists, clinicians, educators, public health professionals, and military leaders from all the services. The current operating picture of TFF within the DoD was described, and then working groups were convened to address issues related to (1) delivering full spectrum health and performance services; (2) advocacy, awareness, and empowerment; (3) research; (4) education; and (5) standardization, branding, and metrics. The outcomes of the summit included recommendations that operational leadership and a consolidated and joint approach are required for TFF to be successful, and TFF must be regarded as an integral part of the National Defense, Security, and Military Strategy. To that end, TFF should be aligned within OUSD(P&R), not the Military Health System, so it extends beyond the medical setting and fully supports mission readiness and performance. Importantly, we must be proactive and teach new recruits about the TFF holistic approach to sustain optimal performance across their careers.

Naval Reserve Officers’ Training Corps Military Performance And Fitness Characteristics Across Academic Years

Naval Reserve Officers’ Training Corps Military Performance And Fitness Characteristics Across Academic Years

Psychometric properties of the 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale in Chinese military personnel.

The 10-item Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC-10) is a widely used assessment of resilience. However, psychometric properties of the Chinese version of CD-RISC-10 have not been well investigated in a Chinese military personnel sample. A total of 3,129 Chinese military personnel completed the CD-RISC-10, Self-rating Anxiety Scale (SAS), and Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS). Among them, 528 recruits completed the CD-RISC-10, SAS, and SDS again after 3-month basic military training (BMT). Meanwhile, the commanding officers were asked to rate recruits' training performance on the training performance rating scale for recruits (TPRS). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was implemented to examine the single-factor model of the CD-RISC-10, and multigroup CFA was conducted to test measurement invariance across military rank (officers vs. enlisted), gender (male vs. female), and time (before and after 3-month BMT). Internal consistency was evaluated using Cronbach's α and McDonald's ω, and test-retest reliability was tested using the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC). The criterion-related validity of CD-RISC was evaluated using Pearson's correlation analysis between the CD-RISC-10 total score and SAS scores, SDS scores, and training performance ratings. The single-factor model of the CD-RISC-10 showed adequate fit (CFI = 0.955-0.970, TLI = 0.943-0.962, RMSEA = 0.059-0.072) in all examined subsamples (male, female, officer, and enlisted), and strict invariance was also supported across military rank, gender, and time (ΔCFI ≤ 0.001, ΔTLI ≤ 0.005, ΔRMSEA ≤ 0.006). The CD-RISC-10 showed good internal consistency in all subsamples (Cronbach's α of > 0.93 and McDonald's ω of > 0.93) and good test-retest reliability (ICC = 0.88). Moreover, concurrent and predictive validity with the SAS and SDS scores were good (r = -0.68 to -0.49, p < 0.001). The resilience level of recruits at the beginning of BMT was significantly associated with training performance rated by supervisors after training (r = 0.29, p < 0.001). The psychometric evidence reported in this study suggests that the CD-RISC-10 is a reliable and valid assessment of resilience and a potential predictor for mental health and military performance in Chinese military personnel.

Techniques of Fluidic Thrust Vectoring in Jet Engine Nozzles: A Review

Thrust vectoring innovations are demonstrated ideas that improve the projection of aerospace power with enhanced maneuverability, control effectiveness, survivability, performance, and stealth. Thrust vector control systems following a variety of concepts have been considered for modern aircraft and missiles to enhance their military performance. Short Take-off and Landing (STOL) and control effectiveness at lower aircraft speeds can be achieved by employing Fluidic Thrust Vectoring Control (FTVC). This paper summarizes a range of ideas for FTVC that have been designed and tested both computationally and experimentally to determine the thrust vectoring performance of supersonic propulsion system nozzles. The conventional method of thrust vectoring involves mechanical means to deflect the direction of flow of the exhaust gases, whereas the most recent method involves fluidic-based thrust vectoring techniques. Fluid-based thrust vectoring has the advantages of simplicity and low weight over mechanical-based thrust vectoring, which has complex geometry and adds extra weight to the aircraft. The fluidic vectoring control nozzles are divided into seven categories: shock vector, bypass shock vector, counterflow, co-flow, throat skewing, dual throat, and bypass dual throat nozzle control. This paper provides a summary of each fluidic thrust vectoring technique with its characteristics, design, classification, and different operational criteria developed to date and compares the intrinsic characteristics of each technique. Based on the present literature, it is concluded that among all the fluidic control techniques, the bypass dual-throat nozzle control can achieve better thrust vectoring performance with large vector angles and low thrust loss.

Twelve weeks of concurrent resistance and interval training improves military occupational task performance in men and women

ABSTRACT In the British Army, ground close combat roles have opened to women, however, they must pass the newly developed, gender-neutral Role Fitness Tests for Soldiers (RFT(S)). Due to physiological differences between sexes, training that optimally prepares both sexes for military occupational demands and the RFT(S) is needed. The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of a 12-week periodized strength and power programme with concurrent interval training on RFT(S) performance and determine if performance adaptations differed between sexes. 39 recruit-aged (18–35 yrs) participants, including 21 men (29 ± 1 yrs) and 18 women (27 ± 1 yrs), completed the study. Participants performed 3 training sessions per week that included strength and power resistance training followed by interval training. Pre- to post-training, improvements were observed for seated medicine ball throw (4.5%, p < 0.001), casualty drag (29.8%, p < 0.001), single lift (8.9%, p < 0.001), water can carry (13.8%, p = 0.012), repeated lift and carry (6.5%, p < 0.001), 2-km load carriage (7.2%, p < 0.001) and 2-km run (3.2%, p = 0.021). Pre- to post-training improvements were also observed for maximal squat (27.0%, p < 0.001), bench press (8.9%, p < 0.001) and deadlift (24.6%, p < 0.001) maximal strength, but not upper body power or aerobic capacity. No differences in RFT(S) improvements were observed between sexes, however men performed better than women in all RFT(S) and physical performance measures. Concurrent resistance and interval training improves military occupational performance in men and women; however, women may need more training than men to pass the gender-neutral RFT(S).

Determinants of the Indonesian military’s career development: Mediating role of performance and moderating role of objectivity of organizational commitment

Career development is a vital aspect of improving work effectiveness and the best contribution of employees to the organization. This study aims to explore the determinants of career development of the Indonesian military. This quantitative study uses a questionnaire (in print and Google Forms) to collect data from 384 Indonesian National Armed Forces personnel at the Iskandar Muda Military Command, Banda Aceh, Indonesia. The participants were army soldiers with the rank levels of non-commissioned, first, and middle officers. Data were processed using the AMOS software and structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. The findings show that the three constructs (work motivation, physical fitness, and emotional intelligence) are relevant in predicting the performance and career development of the Indonesian military. Next, the objectivity of organizational commitment moderates the relationship between performance and career development. In addition, performance mediates the relationship between the three independent variables and career development. These findings imply that the Iskandar Muda military command is expected to be able to apply them in improving performance and career development under applicable procedures.

The Military Performance of the Palestinian Resistance during the Battle of Saif al-Quds (May 2021)

هدفت هذه الورقة إلى التعرف على الأداء العسكري للمقاومة الفلسطينية خلال معركة سيف القدس (مايو 2021)، وذلك من خلال دراسة بيانات فصائل المقاومة الفلسطينية، وقد ركّز الباحث على دراسة بلاغات وبيانات كتائب الشهيد عز الدين القسام الجناح العسكري لحركة المقاومة الإسلامية (حماس)، وسرايا القدس الجناح العسكري لحركة الجهاد الإسلامي؛ كونهما الفاعلان الرئيسيان في المعركة، وقد اعتمد الباحث على تحليل أثر الفعل المقاوم من خلال دراسة العديد من الأبحاث والأخبار التي نشرتها مواقع ومراكز دراسات تابعة للاحتلال. تنتمي هذه الورقة إلى البحوث الوصفية التحليلية، فقد عمد الباحث إلى استقراء الأداء العسكري للمقاومة الفلسطينية خلال المعركة؛ بتحليل البلاغات العسكرية للمقاومة الفلسطينية، في مسعى لتحديد الخطوط الأساسية التي ميّزت أداء المقاومة العسكري خلال المعركة. وقد خلُصت الورقة إلى أنّ المقاومة أخذت زمام المبادرة، ووجهت ضربة البداية، واستطاعت أن تحافظ على زخم ناري هو الأعلى في تاريخ المواجهة مع الاحتلال، وأفشلت مخططاته من خلال استخبارات فعّالة، وامتازت بقدرة عالية على القيادة والسيطرة، رغم كثافة نيران الاحتلال وإجرامه.

The lethality paradox: Goodhart’s Law and the challenge of measuring lethality

Military performance must be evaluated, and one of the most critical concepts to measure involves the lethal capabilities of a military force. However, there are multiple challenges that complicate any accurate performance assessment, including theoretical issues of measurement due to statistical irregularities and practical limitations due to the military context. Here, we describe the lethality paradox, which states that measuring lethality could be a self-defeating exercise despite its necessity. Specifically, the value of any collected metric may be inherently reduced by the act of measurement while, also, creating operational vulnerabilities for a military force. This paradox is conceived as an extension of Goodhart’s Law and incorporates the same challenges of a personnel gaming a set standard rather than developing the skill set supposedly measured by this standard. Our discussion identifies the limitations and applications of Goodhart’s Law to lethality while also concluding with several proposed solutions to different paradoxical challenges.

US policy towards Iraq after 2014

&#x0D; Since the hatred of the 1960s, the United States has been seeking a strategy that could achieve a balance of power in the Arabian Gulf between the Iraq and Iran. The role played by U.S. diplomacy led by Henry Kissinger in the signing of the Algiers Agreement between Iraq and Iran in 1975 was evidence of the importance the United States attaches to Iraq’s role in the West’s anti-communist strategy in the region.By 1970s, the United States took the role of the guarantor state in the Gulf region instead of Britain and tried to maintain stability of the region by maintaining approximate balance of military power between Iraq and Iran, in addition to other policies designed to achieve its goals. After 1988, Iraq emerged as a regional power with material and moral capabilities that qualifies it to play a regional role that is not compatible with American perceptions. Therefore, the process of limiting its capabilities and role became an important goal in the American strategy, in accordance with an integrated strategy in terms of goals, means and methods of implementation. However, the American policy towards Iraq after the occupation in 2003 differed clearly from that of the previous stage. That is because Iraq has become one of the important issues for the American policy. But this policy faces great internal and external challenges that are reflected in its military and security performance, and Iraq has formed one of the most important points of interaction between the United States and neighboring countries .&#x0D; &#x0D;

Undergraduate Medical Education Leader Performance Predicts Postgraduate Military Leader Performance.

Developing physicians as leaders has gained attention across the United States. Undergraduate medical education (UME) and graduate medical education (GME) leader development programs have increased. During postgraduate years (PGY), graduates bring their leadership education to the bedside; however, associations between leader performance in medical school and GME is largely unknown. It is important to find experiences that can assess leader performance that may be useful to predict future performance. The purpose of this study was to determine if (1) there is a correlation between leader performance during the fourth year of medical school versus leader performance in PGY1 and 3, and (2) leader performance during the fourth year of medical school is associated with military leadership performance in PGY1 and 3s while taking previous academic performance markers into account. This study examined overall leader performance of learners (classes of 2016-2018) during the fourth year of medical school and their graduate leader performance post-medical school. Leader performance was assessed by faculty during a medical field practicum (UME leader performance) and graduate leader performance was assessed by program directors at the end of PGY1 (N = 297; 58.3%) and 3 (N = 142; 28.1%). Pearson correlation analysis examined relationships among UME leader performance and between the PGY leader performance items. In addition, stepwise multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between leader performance at the end of medical school with military leadership performance in PGY1 and 3, while taking into account the academic performance markers. Pearson correlation analyses revealed that the UME leader performance was correlated with 3 of 10 variables at PGY1, and was correlated at PGY3 with 10 out of 10 variables. Results of the stepwise multiple linear regression analysis indicated that leader performance during the fourth year of medical school explained an additional 3.5% of the variance of PGY1 leader performance after controlling for the previous academic performance markers (MCAT total score, USMLE Step 1 score and Step 2 CK score). In contrast, leader performance during the fourth year of medical school alone accounted for an additional 10.9% of the variance of PGY3 leader performance above and beyond the set of academic performance markers. Overall, UME leader performance has more predictive power in PGY leader performance than the MCAT or USMLE Step exams. The findings of this study indicate that a positive relationship exists between leader performance at the end of medical school and leader performance in PGY1 and 3 years of residency. These correlations were stronger in PGY3 compared to PGY1. During PGY1, learners may be more focused on being a physician and an effective team member compared to PGY3 where they have a deeper understanding of their roles and responsibilities and can take on more leadership roles. Additionally, this study also found that MCAT and USMLE Step exams performance was not predictive of PGY1 or PGY3 leader performance. These findings provide evidence of the power of continued leader development in UME and beyond.

Beating the heat: military training and operations in the era of global warming.

Global climate change has resulted in an increase in the number and intensity of environmental heat waves, both in areas traditionally associated with hot temperatures and in areas where heat waves did not previously occur. For military communities around the world, these changes pose progressively increasing risks of heat-related illnesses and interference with training sessions. This is a significant and persistent "noncombat threat" to both training and operational activities of military personnel. In addition to these important health and safety concerns, there are broader implications in terms of the ability of worldwide security forces to effectively do their job (particularly in areas that historically already have high ambient temperatures). In the present review, we attempt to quantify the impact of climate change on various aspects of military training and performance. We also summarize ongoing research efforts designed to minimize and/or prevent heat injuries and illness. In terms of future approaches, we propose the need to "think outside the box" for a more effective training/schedule paradigm. One approach may be to investigate potential impacts of a reversal of sleep-wake cycles during basic training during the hot months of the year, to minimize the usual increase in heat-related injuries, and to enhance the capacity for physical training and combat performance. Regardless of which approaches are taken, a central feature of successful present and future interventions will be that they are rigorously tested using integrative physiological approaches.