Military Cooperation Research Articles

How Does the US Affect the Lending Decision Preferences of the International Monetary Fund?

Abstract This paper examines the impact of the US on International Monetary Fund (IMF) lending decisions and explores its underlying mechanisms. The results indicate that alignment with the US diplomatic stance significantly increases the likelihood of borrowers securing IMF loans. Countries with closer economic ties to the US not only face a higher probability of obtaining IMF loans but also tend to receive larger loans. Finally, borrowers that engage in military cooperation with the US, or share military interests, are also more likely to access IMF lending. Mechanism analysis reveals that the US has exercised its influence over IMF lending preferences by appointing senior officials to key positions within the organization. However, borrowing countries can partially offset this influence by placing their own citizens in senior management roles at the IMF, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of US influence on their access to IMF loans.

Indonesia’s Foreign Policy under Prabowo: A Shift Toward Strategic Assertiveness

Indonesia’s foreign policy has traditionally followed the Bebas dan Aktif (Free and Active) doctrine, emphasizing neutrality while actively engaging in global affairs. However, the election of Prabowo Subianto in 2024 marks a significant shift toward a more assertive and strategic approach. While maintaining Joko Widodo’s focus on economic diplomacy, Prabowo has expanded Indonesia’s priorities to include national security, defense, and global partnerships. His administration has actively pursued key initiatives such as joining BRICS, strengthening maritime security in the Indo-Pacific, and expanding military cooperation with major global powers. This study employs a qualitative thematic analysis of existing literature to examine these policy shifts and their implications for Indonesia’s position on the world stage. The findings indicate that while economic diplomacy remains a central pillar, Prabowo’s approach reflects a broader vision that integrates economic interests with national security and strategic alliances. His leadership emphasizes Indonesia’s sovereignty, defense modernization, and a stronger regional and global presence. By balancing economic partnerships with increased military engagement, Prabowo aims to position Indonesia as an influential middle power capable of shaping regional and international dynamics. Overall, this study highlights how Indonesia’s foreign policy under Prabowo represents a transition from economic pragmatism to a more comprehensive strategy that reinforces national interests while fostering strategic global collaborations.

Dinamik Hubungan Diplomatik Türkiye-Israel: Kajian Retrospektif dari Tahun 1949 hingga 2002 The Dynamics of Türkiye-Israel Diplomatic Relations: A Retrospective Study from 1949 to 2002

This article analyzes the diplomatic relationship between Türkiye and Israel from 1949 to 2002 within the context of Türkiye’s foreign policy transformation following the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate, as well as the influence of regional and global geopolitical forces. Türkiye’s official recognition of Israel in 1949 marked the beginning of a complex bilateral relationship, shaped by the legacy of secularism introduced by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and Türkiye’s strategic alignment with the Western bloc during the Cold War era. Adopting a retrospective approach, the study examines how the legacy of the 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement and broader imperial strategies that dismantled Islamic political institutions influenced Türkiye’s foreign policy narrative, particularly in relation to the Palestinian issue. Using historical and political analysis, this article traces patterns of diplomatic, military, and economic cooperation between the two nations, as well as the tensions arising from the protracted Palestinian-Israeli conflict. The findings reveal that although Türkiye–Israel relations have developed within a framework of pragmatic cooperation, they remain deeply affected by historical memory, domestic pressures, and Türkiye’s aspirations to restore regional Islamic solidarity. This study makes a significant contribution to understanding the dynamics of Türkiye’s foreign policy and its position within the postmodern geopolitical landscape of the Middle East.

FPDA’s Legacy and Future: Navigating Geopolitical Shifts in Defence Cooperation

This study analyzes the enduring impact of the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) on Malaysia's security landscape across five decades. By delving into its historical evolution, examining its multifaceted components and assessing its role within the ASEAN region, this research provides a comprehensive understanding of the FPDA's significance in shaping regional security dynamics. The study argues that the FPDA, characterised by its resilience, adaptability and enduring commitment, has played a pivotal role in upholding stability, sovereignty and freedom for Malaysia and Singapore. Through its multifunctional contributions, including military cooperation, dialogue facilitation and response to emerging challenges, the FPDA emerges as a vital pillar of Southeast Asia's security architecture. This study analyses the key take aways for future FPDA. The concept of national security serves as a guiding framework for comprehending the intricate relationship between the FPDA and Malaysia's security. By using a qualitative approach, this study engages in an in-depth analysis of historical records, policy documents and expert insights. The findings of this research highlight potential areas for further development and suggests avenues for enhancing the FPDA's continued relevance in a dynamic geopolitical landscape. This study concludes that the FPDA has consistently upheld its role as a cornerstone of regional stability and security. As a dynamic and adaptable framework, the FPDA has demonstrated its capacity to navigate emerging challenges and foster cooperation among member states. By promoting dialogue, enhancing military interoperability, and adapting to evolving threats, the FPDA remains a crucial asset for ensuring peace, stability, and prosperity in Southeast Asia.

MILITARY OPERATIONS IN THE SECOND KARABAKH WAR: AZERBAIJAN’S STRATEGY, RUSSIA’S STANCE AND TÜRKİYE’S ROLE

The Second Karabakh War marked a significant turning point in the geopolitics of the South Caucasus, highlighting the evolution of military strategies and the mutual interactions of regional powers. This article analyzes Azerbaijan’s military strategy, Türkiye’s role, and Russia’s stance in the context of the Second Karabakh War. As a result of the war, Azerbaijan re-established its sovereignty over its internationally recognized territories, leading to a new geopolitical reality in the South Caucasus. The article examines the war’s military, diplomatic, and political aspects, evaluating the impact of technology and regional powers in modern conflicts. Additionally, it analyzes Azerbaijan’s strategic planning to restore territorial integrity since the 2000s and explores its effective use of modern warfare tools, including unmanned aerial vehicles and high-precision weapon systems. This success was made possible through tight military cooperation and the highly coordinated implementation of modern military thought. In this process, Türkiye’s active involvement in military training, technical equipment, and strategic consultancy significantly contributed to Azerbaijan’s operational efficiency. On the other hand, Russia sought to maintain a balanced stance during the conflict but ultimately played the role of the primary mediator in ending the war. While Russia did not openly defend Armenia, it emphasized its alliance with Armenia within the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) framework. The Second Karabakh War unfolded with Azerbaijan’s successful military strategy, Türkiye’s support, and Russia’s balanced position. Azerbaijan’s victory reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the South Caucasus and created new realities. This research also examines the war’s military, diplomatic, and political dimensions within a scientific methodology, contributing to the study of modern conflict management, regional power policies, and sovereignty issues within the framework of international law. The article also emphasizes that the Second Karabakh War will have long-term effects on regional security dynamics and that regional alliances and power balances will be reshaped. In this context, Azerbaijan’s victory has created significant opportunities not only in military terms but also diplomatically and economically.

Military Alliances and Cooperation: The African Experience

Human security involved multiple countries allied together in defensive or offensive groups from the shifting military alliances of the Peloponnesian and Corinthian wars of ancient Greece to the Axis and Allies of World War II and so studying the fabric of alliances is necessary for understanding African (in) stability. The main thrust of this study is to give content to military alliances and cooperation in Africa with focus on regional organizations. The study reviewed the history of military alliances, examined regional organizations in Africa, conceptualized and contextualized military professionalism, geopolitics and African International Relations; with a view to establishing how and why they influenced military alliance. It also explained terms related to the subject area of military alliance, and, indicated points of divergence. The analysis highlighted peculiar security threats to Africa and how they challenged the military approach to security within the context of African experience; linking the implications to the importance of human security to military alliance and cooperation. It concluded that focus on neutralizing physical threats, contending political interests and overwhelming dependence on military hardware are identifiable defects in regional African military alliances and cooperation, which would advance alliances and corporation in various field of studies.

Us China Relations and Implication Territorial Sovereignty of Phillipines

This study examines the complex connection between the US and China and how it directly impacts the territorial sovereignty of the Philippines in the South China Sea. Given the escalating tensions around disputed maritime features like the Spratly Islands and contested reefs, the Philippines faces significant challenges in maintaining its sovereign rights against China's expansive "nine-dash line" claims. The report highlights how China's aggressive maritime tactics, such conflicts with the coast guard and territorial incursions, jeopardize regional security and challenge the military and diplomatic responses of the Philippines.. Because of their combined military drills and security pledges to prevent coercion while preserving freedom of navigation, the United States and the Philippines have a strategic partnership that is essential to countering China's influence. The study does, however, also highlight the dangers of escalation and the necessity of practical diplomacy to prevent conflict. In order to present a thorough geopolitical study of how the US-China competition influences Philippine sovereignty and regional security architecture, this paper examines legal frameworks, such as the Permanent Court of Arbitration's 2016 verdict, as well as changing military and civilian activities. With an emphasis on maritime conflicts in the South China Sea, this essay examines the effects of the current US-China competition on Philippine territorial sovereignty. It evaluates how the Philippines' sovereign rights over its exclusive economic zone and disputed features like Sandy Cay and the Spratly Islands are threatened by China's broad territorial claims and harsh enforcement strategies. China's denial of international legal standards stands in stark contrast to the Philippines' diplomatic posture, which was strengthened by the Permanent Court of Arbitration's 2016 decision in its favor. A strategic component is introduced by the United States' status as a treaty ally and security partner, since joint exercises and military cooperation are intended to offset China's increasing regional aggression. The study also assesses civilian attempts to preserve sovereignty and the Philippines' internal marine security cooperation. In the end, this research emphasizes how managing great power rivalry while preserving the Philippines' territorial integrity and fostering regional peace requires striking a careful balance between diplomacy and deterrence.

Kerja Sama Militer Brunei Darussalam-Inggris dan Dampaknya terhadap Stabilitas Regional Asia Tenggara

This paper examines the military cooperation between Brunei Darussalam and the United Kingdom, as well as its impact on regional stability in Southeast Asia, focusing on Brunei's non-alignment strategy as a small state. Using a descriptive analytic method based on a literature review, this paper explores descriptive data on the dynamics of Brunei's foreign policy strategy in building bilateral relations, the role of the UK post-Brexit through the Global Britain strategy in strengthening bilateral relations with ASEAN member countries, and the implementation of Brunei and British military cooperation in maintaining regional security stability through the presence of British Forces Brunei since 1963. This is supported by historical ties and the Garrison Agreement to strengthen the security of the country and the region without confrontation. Therefore, this paper shows that Brunei has managed to balance military cooperation with the UK and economic cooperation with China in the midst of great power rivalries and tensions over the South China Sea dispute, as well as its implications for regional stability.

Pakistan’s Global Strategy: Navigating the US-China Tug-of-War

The intensifying rivalry between the United States and China has placed Pakistan in a complex geopolitical dilemma, requiring a delicate balancing act to safeguard its national interests. This article examines Pakistan's strategic positioning amid the US-China tug-of-war, analyzing its historical alliances, economic dependencies, and regional security challenges. While China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), particularly the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), offers critical infrastructure investments, it also raises concerns about debt sustainability and sovereignty. Conversely, the US remains a vital partner for trade, military cooperation, and access to global financial institutions, despite growing tensions over Pakistan's alignment with China. Thestudy highlights Pakistan's multi-alignment strategy, which seeks to diversify diplomatic and economic engagements through multilateral forums like the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) and partnerships with Middle Eastern and Central Asian states. Additionally, the article explores the implications of Pakistan's regional rivalries, particularly with India, and the challenges of stabilizing Afghanistan amid great-power competition. To navigate these complexities, Pakistan must pursue pragmatic diplomacy, domestic economic reforms, and strategic autonomy to avoid over-reliance on either superpower. The findings underscore the importance of a non-aligned, agile foreign policy to ensure Pakistan's long-term stability and prosperity in an increasingly polarized world.

Turkey’s Strategic Expansion in Africa: Multifaceted Engagement in Ethiopia, Libya and Somalia

This study explores Turkey’s strategic expansion across the African continent between 2011 and 2021, with a focused analysis on its engagement in Ethiopia, Libya and Somalia. Anchored in a theoretical framework that blends neoclassical realism, soft and hard power theory, and middle power diplomacy, the research investigates how Turkey has transitioned from a peripheral actor to a proactive regional influencer. The study reveals that Turkey’s foreign policy in Africa combines humanitarian aid, educational outreach and cultural diplomacy with military training programmes, arms sales and the establishment of military bases. In Somalia, Turkey has operated as a state-builder through aid, infrastructure and military cooperation. In Libya, Ankara has strategically deployed hard power to secure post-conflict influence and energy routes. In Ethiopia, it has pursued hybrid engagement, leveraging both economic investment and defence partnerships to enhance its regional foothold. This multifaceted approach reflects Turkey’s broader geopolitical ambition to assert itself as a middle power in the evolving international order. By balancing ideological narratives, economic pragmatism and strategic militarism, Turkey has carved out a sustainable role in shaping Africa’s security, development and diplomacy.

China's Security Engagement with Pakistan: A Counter-terrorism Perspective and Its Impact on Regional Stability

In the realm of security, the strategic partnership between China and Pakistan has become synonymous to China’s engagement with Pakistan in the field of security, especially in the area of counter-terrorism. In the light of common concerns about regional instability and terrorism that adversely affect both nations’ security, the partnership has begun to gain prominence. One of the key US adversaries, Pakistan is a close ally of China, the country which is investing heavily in the country’s development. China has in particular supported Pakistan to strengthen its counter-terrorism capabilities through training, intelligence sharing and military cooperation with a view to saving the region and securing the China Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC). But, there are questions on the wider impact on regional stability that this partnership can exert. Successes in counter-terrorism cooperation have curbed extremism in some instances, but challenges remain, especially when the balance of successfully curbing this threat with political dynamics in South Asia. This paper analyzes the effectiveness of China’s security engagement with Pakistan in counter terrorism context and examines how it affects regional stability, chiefly by neighbors such as India and Afghanistan.

US Military and Economic Policy towards Yemen 1991-2012

In summary, Yemeni-American military relations during the period from 1991 to 2012 were characterized by the following The early 1990s marked the true beginning of the emergence of the United States' military presence on the regional political scene following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, which the latter used as a pretext for the entry of its military forces into the region, despite the Republic of Yemen's opposition to US intervention in the region due to the risks it posed to Arab national security. Yemen's political rejection of military intervention in the region during the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait was based on its conviction that the problem must be resolved within an Arab framework, thus eliminating any pretext for the US, which was eager to enter the region under the pretext of expelling Iraq from Kuwait. Yemen's rejection was accompanied by fears that the United States would disrupt the military balance in the region in favor of the Zionist entity. Military and security cooperation between the United States and Yemen has yielded several important benefits for Yemen, including assistance to the Yemeni army in training, equipping, and arming some Yemeni military units to combat terrorism, including the Central Security Forces and Special Forces. The United States has also contributed to building, training, and arming the Yemeni Coast Guard, with the aim of protecting Yemen's long coastline and preventing al-Qaeda members from infiltrating Yemen to attack American interests in Yemen and the region. The United States has tightened military controls on the flow of various weapons into Yemen, citing concerns that these weapons could fall into the hands of al-Qaeda members in Yemen, posing a real threat to American interests in Yemen and the rest of the Gulf states.

State positioning in European military AI networks: a social network analysis of European partnerships in military AI

ABSTRACT This study examines the positioning of nations with established AI capabilities within European military AI collaboration networks, exploring their influence and strategic centrality. Applying Social Network Analysis (SNA) to data from a 2023 expert survey (N = 479), supplemented by qualitative insights from targeted interviews, the research uncovers the structural dynamics shaping military AI cooperation. The findings indicate that countries with dedicated national AI strategies in defence leverage institutional readiness to become key nodes in the network, driving both innovation and governance. However, the overall network remains fragmented, with low density and limited cohesion, suggesting unrealized potential for deeper cooperation. The study highlights the pivotal roles of NATO and the European Defence Agency in strengthening integration and coordination. By employing SNA, this research offers new perspectives on European strategic affairs, shedding light on the evolving landscape of military AI governance and technological advancement.

북한과 루마니아 간 방문외교의 전개(1971-1988): 이념과 현실 사이의 불일치

Relations between North Korea and Romania lasted from the early 1950s to the end of the 1980s and formed a unique relationship, which distinguished itself from other Eastern European countries. The relationship is based on the fact that since the 1960s, the two countries have been known as ‘weak countries’ in the socialist camp. Despite the risks, they chose to pursue an independent diplomatic route against the Soviet Union’s policy. In other words, they tried to maintain a foreign policy that was in their own interests unlike other socialist countries which unconditionally obeyed the Soviets. However, the relationship between the two countries froze between 1967 and 1969. One of the reasons was that North Korea’s national policies were thoroughly based on ideology, compared to Romania’s free diplomatic relations with capitalist countries. It may be said that in the beginning, North Korea have found it difficult to accept Romania’s free way of doing diplomacy. At last, the relationship between the two countries began to recover in 1970, when Kim Il-sung decided to make use of Romania’s relation with capitalist partners. Thus, in order to validate their strong relation, Kim Il-sung and Ceausescu engaged into eight mutual visits between 1971 and 1988. On the one hand, from North Korea’s standpoint, the economic benefits that were sought through Romania were not substantially achieved. However, the political significance can be found in the matter that through Romania, North Korea gained unconditional support and advocacy for its system on the international stage. On the other hand, Romania’s economic, military cooperation and exchanges with North Korea did not bring any significant benefit. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that after the mid-1970s, Ceausescu’s personal preference for Kim Il-sung has been expanded towards the North Korean system itself. This happened due to Ceausescu’s gradual weakening of domestic influence since the mid-1970s. As a consequence, it led to his personal desire to have the power secured by gradually making the Romanian system a dictatorship centered on ideological ideas similar to North Korea’s. In this regard, this paper also examines Ceausescu’s last three visits to North Korea, before his downfall in 1989.

The Druze Authority in Lebanon and Its Relationship with the Ruling Powers under the Mamluk and Ottoman States (The Tanukhids from the Al-Buhtur Dynasty and the Ma’nis as an Example).

The history of Lebanon during the Mamluk and Ottoman rule witnessed complex interactions between local families and the ruling powers. Each faction in Lebanon at the time, including the Banu Buhtur and the Ma‘n dynasty, sought to assert its presence under the Mamluk and Ottoman states. Their objectives included protecting their interests and maintaining independence in the regions they controlled by adopting policies of maneuvering and strategic flexibility. They worked to establish strong relations with both the Mamluk and Ottoman authorities while simultaneously leveraging regional conflicts between these powers. This was particularly evident in their dealings with competing major powers of the time, such as the Crusaders, the Mongols, and the Western Christian world. Through this dual strategy, they aimed to maximize their political gains and safeguard their local interests amidst ongoing geopolitical transformations. This study seeks to compare two prominent Druze families that ruled in Lebanon—the Buhturids and the Ma‘nids—both of whom aspired to achieve their own ambitions of independence from the central authority. The Buhturids, known for their strong connections with the Mamluks, were characterized by their desire to maintain relative autonomy without directly confronting the Mamluks. They pursued a policy of adapting to the status quo while cautiously building relationships with external powers. In contrast, the Ma‘n family, particularly under the leadership of Fakhr al-Din II, adopted a completely different approach with the Ottomans. The Ma‘nids sought full independence from Ottoman rule and relied on their strong relations with Western powers, especially European states, to achieve this goal. These alliances, exemplified by their political and military cooperation with the West, were aimed at undermining Ottoman influence in the region. This approach made their stance more assertive and explicit compared to that of the Buhturids.

The Chinese-American Composite Wing’s Air Battle during Operation Ichi-Go

Abstract This article examines the role of the Chinese-American Composite Wing (cacw) in air battles during Operation Ichi-Go, a pivotal campaign in the Second Sino-Japanese War. The cacw was established in October 1943 under the joint command of the United States Army Air Forces (usaaf) and the Chinese Nationalist Air Force (cnaf). It comprised both fighter and bomber units from the two forces, tasked with securing air supremacy, disrupting Japanese supply lines, and providing air support to the National Revolutionary Army (nra). The operation saw major engagements in North China and the Yangtze River region, where the cacw faced fierce resistance from the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force (jaaf). Despite numerical parity between the opposing forces, the Allies capitalised on superior tactics, including the ‘Air Guerrilla’ strategy and seamless coordination between cnaf and usaaf units, which ultimately led to the jaaf’s defeat. This article provides a comparative analysis of the cacw’s air combat performance, examining its key victories, losses, and overall strategic impact in achieving air superiority within the China-Burma-India Theatre. Drawing upon archival records from both Allied and Japanese sources, this study underscores the crucial contributions of the cacw to the broader success of Allied operations and highlights the significance of Sino-American military cooperation during the Second World War.

Development of the cooperative security concept and specifics of its application in the Asia-Pacific region

The publication is dedicated to the analysis of the gnoseological development of the concept of cooperative security and the specific features of its implementation in the Asia-Pacific. It examines the evolution of theoretical approaches – from the ideas of interdependence to the formation and progression of cooperative security as an independent concept – through the analysis of the works of H. Chestnut, J. Steinbruner, H. Harding, R. Cohen, M. Mihalka, R. Emmers, J. Haake, and P Evans.The article also focuses on the role of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) as an example of a limited yet effective cooperative security system. It analyzes the key principles characteristic of the cooperative security model in the Asia-Pacific, including inclusiveness, transparency, comprehensiveness, multilateralism, non-interference in internal affairs, and the predominant use of consultation and consensus mechanisms. The article highlights the distinction between approaches to cooperative security in the Euro-Atlantic area, where the emphasis lies primarily on military cooperation and collective security, and in the Asia-Pacific, where cooperative security encompasses a broad spectrum of interactions among international actors — including military, political, economic, and social cooperation in the absence of collective security mechanisms but with the presence of complementary security instruments (such as the ASEAN Regional Forum, the East Asia Summit, the U.S. hub-and-spokes system (the US bilateral alliances with the Republic of Korea, Japan and Australia) etc). It is concluded that cooperative security in the Asia-Pacific functions primarily as a mechanism for confidence-building rather than conflict resolution.

Strengthening the European Union's Military Actorness Under the Influence of NATO`s Expansion"

The article provides a detailed analysis of the features and identifies problems in the interaction between the European Union and the North Atlantic Alliance. It examines existing types of security and military cooperation betweenEuropean states within the EU and NATO frameworks, which indicates the strengthening of such cooperation between states in the region. The significance of the NATO Standardization Agreement within the EU has been analyzed. It has been determined that at the current stage, the EU's military actorness is strengthening not only based on NATO as a guarantor of collective security and unifier of military standards but also due to new security challenges in the region. An important role is played by the analysis of NATO expansions, especially after the collapse of the USSR, when the EU and the Alliance expanded their ranks through the accession of former socialist bloc states, thus extending eastward and strengthening their economic, political, and military actorness. The evolution of institutional interaction between NATO and the EU from the 2002 Declaration to the 2023 Joint Declaration has been examined. Key provisions in these documents include the development of strategic partnership,complementarity of defense initiatives, joint confrontation against hybrid threats, and enhanced military mobility, which indicates deepening cooperation in the security sphere. The article analyzes how changes in transatlantic relations, particularly the periodicdistancing of the US from European security issues and calls for increased defense spending by European allies, have contributed to intensifying discussions about European strategic autonomy and strengthening the EU's military actorness. Prospects for furtherresearch on institutional, operational, and strategic interaction between the EU and NATO in the context of developing the European Union's own defense capabilities are identified, especially in light of the new geopolitical reality and growing regional security threats.

The new scramble for Africa: how global powers are competing for influence in the 21st century

The paper examines the contemporary competition for influence in Africa among global powers, drawing parallels to the 19th-century colonial "Scramble for Africa." it analyzes how major powers, like China, the United States, Russia, and European nations, compete for strategic partnerships through various means such as infrastructure investments, military cooperation, and diplomatic engagement. By employing a qualitative analysis of recent developments in Africa-global power relations, the paper utilizes secondary data from international organizations, government reports, and academic sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play. Theoretical frameworks such as neorealism and dependency theory are used to understand power dynamics and resource competition in the context of Africa's interactions with global powers. The findings reveal China's dominance through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), with a staggering $295.5 billion in trade, while the United States focuses on security partnerships and promoting democratic governance. Russia, on the other hand, leverages military contractors and energy partnerships to expand its influence, whereas France experiences declining influence amid regional backlash. A significant observation from the study is Africa's growing agency in asserting its sovereignty and selecting partnerships that align with its development goals. African states are increasingly utilizing new tools such as digital diplomacy, climate change advocacy, and diaspora influence to enhance their global political position. The study concludes that Africa's strategic importance will continue to grow due to its vast mineral resources, demographic dividend, and geographic position, making it a crucial player in global politics. To maximize development benefits while maintaining sovereignty, the study recommends that African nations focus on strengthening regional integration, improving governance structures, and diversifying partnerships. By doing so, African countries can navigate the complex landscape of global power competition and leverage their growing influence to achieve sustainable development and economic growth.

Assessing the impact of U.S. economic aid and military support on the strategic dynamics of Pakistan’s foreign policy: a study of diplomatic relations and public sentiment

The study utilizes a mixed-methods approach to address a gap in the existing literature by investigating the impact of U.S. economic assistance, shifts in U.S. military backing, diplomatic disagreements, and public opinion on Pakistan’s foreign policy decisions. Previously, there was a focus on isolated aspects of this relationship, such as economic or military factors. The regression results indicate that U.S. economic aid (− 0.46, p < 0.001) and diplomatic disputes (− 0.31, p < 0.025) have a negative impact on Pakistan’s foreign policy decision-making, whereas changes in U.S. military support (0.25, p < 0.013) positively influence it. The results imply a negative impact of U.S. economic aid, indicating that Pakistan’s policy autonomy is limited due to increased economic dependence. On the other hand, modifications to U.S. military assistance demonstrate a noteworthy positive impact, indicating that increased military collaboration supports assertive policy initiatives. Qualitative results show that Pakistan views the alignment with the U.S. as a way to get financial, military, and diplomatic support from the U.S., enhancing its influence and strategic position in the area. Financial considerations, such as maintaining trade advantages and receiving financial backing from the U.S., influence Pakistan’s decisions about its foreign policy. Pakistan would have to reassess its strategic priorities if U.S. economic aid was cut back or modified. Conditionality allows the United States to achieve certain policy objectives, like counterterrorism cooperation, human rights reforms, and regional stability, by linking aid to desired outcomes. The validity of dependency theory and military support’s effect on asymmetric coalitions illuminate bilateral power dynamics. The research suggests bilateral frameworks, varied economic partnerships, and increased military cooperation to decrease dependency and boost policy autonomy. The findings illustrate aid-politics dynamics by integrating quantitative and qualitative data and contributing to foreign policy analysis literature.