Military Capabilities Research Articles

‘A Brave People United’: Warfare, Race, and the Making of the Martial Sikh

ABSTRACT This article explores how British perceptions of Sikh martial character evolved in the years surrounding the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars. Although British observers in previous decades recognised the Sikh Empire’s expanding military capabilities, they tended to reduce these developments to the presence of European mercenaries or the unique martial genius of Ranjit Singh, rather than the inherent character of Sikhs themselves. The experience of the two Anglo-Sikh wars upended these views. Not only did the Sikh army fight hard in both conflicts, it also fought using tools and tactics that were legible to British observers. The wars thus came to be seen as noble last stands undertaken by an armed and unified people, a tragic tale that resonated with mid-Victorian audiences. This narrative was further strengthened and transformed in late-Victorian and Edwardian retellings. The Anglo-Sikh wars came to be seen as a military crucible that forged two nations together in a common destiny. These latter works seemed to provide historical support for official claims that the Sikhs constituted a ‘martial race’, one whose masculine virtues could be unlocked under the paternalistic supervision of British officers.

The AI Wave in Defence Innovation: Assessing Military Artificial Intelligence Strategies, Capabilities, and Trajectories

The AI Wave in Defence Innovation: Assessing Military Artificial Intelligence Strategies, Capabilities, and Trajectories

The Impact of China's Assertiveness in the South China Sea on Japan's Defense Policy and Regional Security Dynamics: Implications for Stability and Multilateral Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific

The purpose of this study is to discuss the impact of growing aggressiveness with the South China Sea (SCS) China on Japan's defense policy as well as overall regional security in the Indo-Pacific region. In response to China's assertive expansion of territorial claims and the military build-up of artificial islands, the Japanese have adapted and advanced in the domains of defense strategy, military capabilities, and regional security positions. This research is intended to help in understanding how Japan has responded to these developments, and what these responses suggest for mutual security cooperation, and in particular the U.S.–Japan alliance, as well as the Quad and ASEAN. Drawing the insights into Japan's evolving defense posture and the role played by the same in maintaining regional stability, we only use the case studies and interviews as well as other documents in this study. Finally, the research will give methodological advice on how to cope with the strain in the South China Sea to guarantee peace and security in the South China Sea long haul for Japan alongside other included nations.

Ukraine’s Counter-Strategic Responses Toward Russian Propaganda and Disinformation During the War

Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine was followed by a series of propaganda and disinformation aimed at degrading the government's political power and military capabilities in dealing with the war situation. Since the conflict escalated, there has been a significant increase in the spread of Russian propaganda messages and disinformation narratives among domestic Ukrainian society. Given the importance of political support and international legitimacy for the attack on Ukraine, the spread of propaganda and fake news about Ukraine has also targeted the global public. The enormous political impact requires Ukraine to take strategic countermeasures against the domination of Russian disinformation narratives. This study aims to explain the various strategic actions taken by the Ukrainian government and community organizations to overcome the spread of Russian propaganda messages and disinformation. This research uses a qualitative approach to analyze several of Ukraine’s actions toward Russian propaganda and disinformation attacks. A literature study technique has been conducted in this research by exploring the government’s statements, previous research, online publications, and other resources to collect data related to the topic. In general, this research found that the Ukrainian government, in collaboration with civil society communities, has increased anti-propaganda and disinformation campaigns to deal with the problems domestically. Meanwhile, various diplomatic initiatives are conducted in collaboration with governments and community organizations in different countries to counter the spread of Russian disinformation in the international sphere. It is hoped that, by applying those strategic steps, Ukraine can efficiently degrade Russia's political power and information domination regarding the war situation in the global arena. Keywords: Propaganda; Disinformation; Russia; Ukraine

The Impact of China's Assertiveness in the South China Sea on Japan's Defense Policy and Regional Security Dynamics: Implications for Stability and Multilateral Cooperation in the Indo-Pacific

The purpose of this study is to discuss the impact of growing aggressiveness with the South China Sea (SCS) China on Japan's defense policy as well as overall regional security in the Indo-Pacific region. In response to China's assertive expansion of territorial claims and the military build-up of artificial islands, the Japanese have adapted and advanced in the domains of defense strategy, military capabilities, and regional security positions. This research is intended to help in understanding how Japan has responded to these developments, and what these responses suggest for mutual security cooperation, and in particular the U.S.–Japan alliance, as well as the Quad and ASEAN. Drawing the insights into Japan's evolving defense posture and the role played by the same in maintaining regional stability, we only use the case studies and interviews as well as other documents in this study. Finally, the research will give methodological advice on how to cope with the strain in the South China Sea to guarantee peace and security in the South China Sea long haul for Japan alongside other included nations.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA) and regional order: The utility of FPDA military exercises for Malaysia and Singapore

ABSTRACT Established in 1971, the Five Power Defence Arrangements (FPDA)—a defence pact comprising Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Malaysia, and Singapore—has played a significant security role in Southeast Asia. A central feature of the FPDA is the conduct of Joint Military Exercises (JMEs), which involve all member states. This article draws on declassified diplomatic and defence documents, interview materials, and other sources, including press releases, to examine the utility of FPDA JMEs to the regional order in Southeast Asia. It argues that these exercises contribute to regional order in Southeast Asia by facilitating defence ties between Malaysia and Singapore, building up their military capabilities, and deterring potential adversaries while enjoying tacit acceptance from regional actors and external powers. These exercises not only influence regional dynamics but are themselves shaped by evolving geopolitical and regional conditions, highlighting the reciprocal nature of their impact.

Artificial Intelligence in Warfare: Ethical Implications and Strategic Considerations

This paper examines the impact of AI on warfare, focusing on its strategic implications and ethical dilemmas. It explores how AI enhances military capabilities while raising concerns about accountability, human oversight, and compliance with international humanitarian law. The study aims to provide insights into the governance challenges posed by AI in warfare and propose frameworks for responsible AI deployment. AI incorporation in modern weaponry can be regarded as a double-edged sword. Even though AI provides significant advantages over adversaries, it is often violative of fundamental rights such as privacy and dignity. Therefore, considering the ethical implications of adopting AI technology in military systems, there is a need to develop a proper framework using international and humanitarian laws as guidelines. Only thus, the strategic opportunities presented by AI in military and defence systems can be effectively realised. This study has adopted a secondary qualitative approach and systematic literature review to gather and analyse data on the topic to meet research objectives and establish research findings. As the findings suggest, developing a strategic framework would ensure stability in the world order and can deter war promoting ethical adoption of AI for military purposes. Just usage, transparent systems and processes along with meaningful and relevant human control and moral responsibility can serve as essential principles for regulations on AI adoption. This would further promote safety for mankind and establish a peaceful world order decreasing the risk of unethical usage of AI technology for defence purposes by nations. Such frameworks would promote human and AI collaboration reducing the risk of oversight.

ДИПЛОМАТІЯ ТА БЕЗПЕКА УКРАЇНИ В СИСТЕМІ МІЖНАРОДНИХ ВІДНОСИН: ВИКЛИКИ ГЛОБАЛЬНОЇ НЕСТАБІЛЬНОСТІ

The article examines the current challenges facing Ukraine in the field of diplomacy and national security in the context of global instability. The role of diplomacy as a key foreign policy instrument aimed at protecting national interests and ensuring the security of the state in the system of in- ternational relations is analyzed. Special attention is paid to the relationship between diplomatic measures, military capabilities and information policy, which together form the national security strategy of Ukraine. The main priorities of Ukraine’s foreign policy are considered, including integration into the European Union and NATO, strengthening strategic partnerships with Western countries, countering hybrid threats and preserv- ing territorial integrity. The political and diplomatic mechanisms used to attract international support for Ukraine are analyzed, in particular in the formation of an anti-Russian coalition, strengthening sanctions pressure and expanding military-technical cooperation with partner countries. The article also highlights the role of international organizations in support- ing Ukraine’s security initiatives, as well as the impact of global processes, in particular multipolarity, the increase in the level of conflicts in the world and economic instability, on Ukrainian foreign policy. The need to strength- en the state’s information security as a component of diplomatic struggle in the international arena is particularly emphasized. The authors conclude that for the effective implementation of its foreign policy strategy, Ukraine needs not only to strengthen diplomatic ties with international partners, but also to develop its own defense potential, en- hance economic stability and adapt its information security strategy to new challenges. Further research may focus on analyzing the effectiveness of Ukraine’s existing international alliances, the prospects for strengthening its position in the global security system, and ways to expand diplomatic initiatives to maintain stability in the region.

Comparison of Rectal and Gastrointestinal Core Temperatures During Heat Tolerance Testing

Background and Objectives: Military capability may be reduced in hot environments with individuals at risk of exertional heat stroke (EHS). Heat tolerance testing (HTT) can be used to indicate readiness to return to duty following EHS. HTT traditionally relies on rectal core temperature (Tre) assessment via a rectal probe. This study investigated the use of gastrointestinal core temperature (Tgi) as an alternative to Tre during HTT. A secondary aim was to compare physiological factors between heat-tolerant and heat-intolerant trials. Materials and Methods: Australian Defence Force personnel undergoing HTT following known or suspected heat stroke volunteered (n = 23 cases participating in 26 trials) along with 14 controls with no known heat illness history. Confusion matrices enabled comparison of HTT outcome based on Tgi and Tre. The validity of Tgi compared to Tre during HTT was assessed using correlation and bias. Comparisons between heat-tolerant and intolerant trials were performed using non-parametric tests. Results: Although Tgi correlated closely with Tre (Spearman’s rank correlation = 0.893; median bias 0.2 °C) there was no consistent pattern in the differences between measures. Importantly, the two measures only agreed on heat tolerance outcome in 80% of trials with Tgi failing to detect heat intolerance identified by Tre in 6 of 8 trials. If Tgi was relied upon for diagnostic outcome, return to duty may occur before full recovery. None of the assessed covariates were related to the difference between Tre and Tgi. In addition, resting heart rate and systolic blood pressure were significantly lower and body surface area to mass ratio significantly higher in heat-tolerant compared to intolerant trials. Conclusions: It is not recommended to rely on Tgi instead of Tre during HTT. Resting heart rate and systolic blood pressure findings point to the importance of aerobic exercise in conveying heat tolerance along with body composition.

The Transformation of the Hungarian Defence Forces

With the end of the Cold War, Hungary, like most European nations, allowed its considerable military capability to decline. As international crises followed each other in the early 21st century, the country’s leadership realised that Europe’s security situation was deteriorating and a credible deterrent force was needed to protect national borders and sovereignty. The Hungarian Defence Forces embarked on an ambitious transformation program in 2017, the two pillars of which are the modernisation of the entire defence sector and the creation of armed forces superior to all possible opponents. The paper provides a brief overview of the HDF transformation process that has taken place so far.

Artificial Intelligence and The National Security Matrix

Artificial Intelligence is playing a transformational role in the domains of national security and international relations, which means that it is uniquely situated in military systems, cybersecurity, intelligence systems, and diplomatic strategy, thereby altering the way in which states define and respond to security threats. Also, fundamentally different than the preceding information technological revolutions, AI can engage all levels of security policy from the tactical level concerning battlefield operations to the strategic level relating to high-level decision making about geopolitical risks. AI is being embraced as both a weapon to possess in national security and, simultaneously, it is being regarded as a weakness in the new global security context at a time when great power strategic competition is strengthening.AI is transforming national security norms and paradigms in traditional ways, including advanced military capabilities, dynamic approaches to cyber defense, predictive measures to surveil threats, and a strategic foresight capacity that has not existed previously. The performance of the US, China, and Russia in terms of national security in terms of AI development represents a new type of technological hegemony or advantage over other states, thereby negotiating positional power or benefits of dominance, or all other states will come to experience technological obsolescence and erosion of national security priorities

Virtual and Augmented Reality in Military Training: A Transformative Approach to Combat Readiness

Abstract — The progress of immersive technologies has significantly transformed military training, education, and simulation-based applications. Augmented Reality(AR) and Virtual Reality(VR) have revolutionized training methodologies by providing realistic simulations, enhancing combat training, and improving situational awareness. This paper examines the role of AR and VR in military training, focusing on their impact on combat condition, mission planning, and interactive learning environments. The study evaluates various AR/VR-based military training systems, including combat simulations and tactical training environments, Analyzing their effectiveness in enhancing soldier performance. Findings indicate that AR and VR technologies enable risk-free combat training, Improve resource utilization, and improve decision-making processes. Additionally, the integration of haptic feedback in AR/VR simulations allows soldiers to experience realistic physical sensations, further improving training effectiveness by replicating real-world combat scenarios more accurately. Despite these advantages, challenges such as hardware limitations, high implementation costs, and security problems restrict widespread usage. Future advancements in immersive technology, along with cost-effective and adaptable solutions, can further enhance military training capabilities, ensuring more efficient and adaptive training methodologies. Keywords - Immersive Technologies, Virtual Reality (VR), environment, combat simulation, tactical training, risk-free training, haptic feedback, hardware limitations, security problems, adaptive training methodologies.

The Global Revolution in Military Affairs and Comat Effectiveness: Challenges and Prospects for Nigeria

The advent of the Global Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA) has fundamentally transformed the character of warfare, emphasizing technological superiority, precision weaponry, information dominance, and network-centric operations. This paper examines the implications of the RMA on Nigeria’s combat effectiveness, assessing the challenges posed by structural deficiencies, limited defense spending, inadequate technological capacity, and institutional inertia. Using qualitative analysis and a review of secondary data, the study reveals a significant gap between Nigeria’s current military capabilities and the strategic demands of modern warfare. However, it identifies key prospects for improvement through policy reforms, enhanced investment in defense technology, regional partnerships, and the integration of artificial intelligence, cybersecurity, and drone warfare. The paper concludes that while Nigeria faces substantial obstacles in aligning with the dynamics of the RMA, strategic commitment to modernization and innovation can enhance its combat readiness and national security architecture. Keywords: Revolution in Military Affairs, combat effectiveness, Nigeria, military modernization, information warfare, defense technology

The Socio-Economic Perspective for the Guns Vs. Butter Trade-Off in the European Union Countries

Abstract Research background At the NATO Wales Summit in 2014, European allies agreed to spend at least 2% of GDP on defence.1 However, the break-out of the Russo-Ukrainian war increased EU countries efforts to spend more on military capability not only because of solidarity in the alliance, but also as an effect of the support for Ukraine, let alone a rising security threat to their communities. Economic theory provides evidence that all-kind resources are limited, including public ones, therefore, many EU countries are facing or will face a fiscal challenges concerning the trade-off between military and non-military expenditure in the coming years. Purpose Our paper aims to identify which European countries may be vulnerable (resilient) to the guns versus butter trade-off in the near future. Research methodology We evaluated the national perspectives for reducing welfare expenditure to invest more in the army. Using an explanatory data analysis and a cluster analysis, we compared the socio-economic similarities and dissimilarities among 21 economies from the European Union. Results We conclude that national vulnerability (resilience) to the guns-butter trade-off is dependent on the current scale of defence financing and budgetary space for placing public debt on the financial markets. Novelty Our paper takes an ex-ante approach to the problem, whereas most literature offers an ex-post verification. We focused on the analysis of the preconditions for a trade-off, not the consequences.

RUSSIA'S GOALS AND PRIORITIES IN THE RUSSIA-UKRAINE CONFLICT

Based on Colin Gray’s defense planning theory, Russia’s territorial control in Ukraine reflects a clear strategic defense objective to strengthen its position in Eastern Europe. The success of Russia’s defense strategy is influenced by the interplay between political policies, military power, and the ability to adapt to close-range conflict situations. This territorial control is not merely a result of military conflict but also an integral part of a long-term plan to achieve broader political goals. Additionally, the motivation of Russian human resources in Ukraine demonstrates a well-planned and directed strategic approach. The high number of volunteers and the motivation of troops indicate Russia’s efforts to achieve its objectives through optimizing human resource partnerships. The prioritization of Ukraine’s natural resources also reflects Russia’s strategy to enhance its geopolitical position and fulfill its economic needs. This resource control not only provides financial advantages but also strengthens Russia’s military capabilities. Therefore, the interplay between political policies, military power, and the ability to adapt to dynamic situations is a key factor in Russia’s defense strategy during this conflict.

Complementarity in alliances: How strategic compatibility and hierarchy promote efficient cooperation in international security

Abstract How can defense alliances reap the efficiency gains of working together when coordination and opportunism costs are high? Although specializing as part of a collective comes with economic and functional benefits, states must bargain over the distribution of those gains and ensure the costs of collective action are minimized. I argue that states can overcome these problems by forming alliances with high strategic compatibility and hierarchy. This approach minimizes opportunism and coordination costs by efficiently distributing defense capabilities, encouraging complementarity rather than redundancy. I demonstrate this by developing a novel network‐level measure of division of labor and applying it to data on national military capabilities from 1970 to 2014. This research not only enhances understanding of the modern international system but also underscores the importance of these considerations for intra‐alliance bargaining more broadly.

A European way of war: Towards doctrine to defend against Russia, without the US

Recent changes in US foreign policy and strategic posture have forced Europe to think about meeting its security needs without US support. One issue that requires a particular focus is the question of how to deter and defend against Russia in a conventional war. This article attempts a high-level assessment of European military capability, and considers whether existing military doctrine is adequate. It argues that Europe should maintain its focus on NATO’s manoeuvrist mode of war fighting and identifies key capability gaps that need to be filled for (a) a coalition of the willing and (b) Europe as a whole to be able to fight in this way. It cautions against an unduly defensive, attritional method of fighting, based on conscript armies, as playing to Russia’s strengths instead of our own.

Method of adaptive component-based design of unmanned aerial vehicles suitable for military missions

The dynamic evolution of hybrid warfare conditions has led to the emergence and large-scale deployment of a new technological instrument of war – UAV swarms. This trend has created a variety of military application domains for UAVs, including strike, reconnaissance, decoy drones, and others. Designing new UAVs from scratch is time-consuming, which poses a critical challenge under wartime conditions. Therefore, it is relevant to conduct research into modern design methods capable of ensuring the rapid development of new UAVs through the adaptation of existing baseline components for constructing the required UAV system architecture in the chosen direction of military application. This study focuses on a set of models aimed at accelerating UAV development projects by adapting baseline components. The key objectives include: conducting a systems analysis of project activities required for adapting UAV architecture to new military applications; justifying the selection of UAV design alternatives suitable for a new component-based architecture; assembling a development team capable of designing a new UAV for specific purposes within a short timeframe; and modeling the sequence of project activities required to adapt UAV component-based architecture to emerging military operational requirements. The research utilizes a range of mathematical methods and models, including: systems analysis for adaptive project activities related to UAV development; component-based UAV design method; lexicographic ordering for ranking design alternatives; expert evaluation techniques for identifying the most rational UAV configuration; targeted search method for optimal developer team formation using integer (Boolean) programming; and simulation modeling to plan the sequence of project activities for adapting UAV component architectures to new military applications. The following results were achieved: a systems-based representation of UAV project activities using a component-oriented approach was developed; the selection of a rational UAV architecture adapted to new military requirements was substantiated; a qualified development team capable of rapidly executing a UAV design project has been selected, with consideration of design-related risks; and a multi-agent model has been developed to facilitate planning of project activities aimed at adapting the UAV’s component architecture tailored to specific mission profiles. Conclusions: the findings of this study provide a scientific foundation for developing modern component-based UAV architectures for a variety of military applications; it ensures rapid execution of adaptation projects for existing UAV architectures to meet new application requirements and supports the formation of competent development teams under time and risk constraints. This contributes to improved military defense capabilities on the battlefield. The scientific novelty of the proposed approach lies in the creation of an adaptive design methodology grounded in the component-oriented paradigm. This enables the creation of new UAVs through the adaptation of existing architectures for specific military purposes and the formation of a development team capable of fast project execution in wartime conditions.

Возрождение нацизма и современная русофобия: уроки истории и вызовы настоящего

The article examines the resurgence of Nazism in the 21st century and analyzes manifestations of modern Russophobia in the political discourse and informational agendas of European countries as a significant chal-lenge for Russia. The author reviews the works of theorists who studied totalitarian regimes of the 20th century (H. Arendt, С. Hayes), paying particular attention to the pseudo-scientific foundations underpinning Nazism, which is rooted in social Darwinism, anti-Semitism, anti-communism, and anti-Slavism. Additionally, the article provides an initial definition of the term “Russophobia”, first introduced by F.I. Tyutchev, noting that its meaning has undergone substantial transformation over time. Based on the analysis of normative legal documents, sit-uational and contextual analysis of media materials, the author cites facts of Russophobia manifesting as a form of “new anti-Semitism” in modern European political practices. Western European countries tend to over-look overtly Nazi-inspired legal norms and symbols present in Ukrainian policies, as well as in those of Baltic states, Poland, and several other nations. By demonizing Russia, these states are consolidating their military and political capabilities while employing hostile rhetoric to launch new confrontations against Russia.

The Evolution of China’s Security Role in the Gulf and Emerging Challenges to its “Hedging” Diplomacy

Commencing with interests relating to its energy security from 1993, China has steadily expanded its ties with the Gulf, emerging as the region’s principal trade and investment partner. From 2013, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), that links east of China with West Asia through multi-modal logistical connectivity projects across Eurasia and the Indian Ocean, now complements China’s energy, economic and technological ties with the region. The policy framework within which China has shaped its approach to the Gulf has been described as “hedging” by Chinese scholars, ie, an approach in which China seeks maximum economic rewards with minimum political risks. This has served China’s interests by enabling it to address regional political and security issues, while maintaining close relations with different nations across the conflict-prone region. The paper points out that the significant changes in the regional security scenario as a result of the Gaza war, particularly Israel’s military triumph and the full backing to its maximalist agenda that it enjoys from the Trump administration portends regional developments that would seriously jeopardise China’s interests, principally the priority attached by the US-Israel alliance to promoting normalisation of Saudi Arabia’s ties with Israel and the attendant isolation of Iran and the emasculation of its military and political capabilities. The paper argues that these developments require China to review its traditional “hedging” approach to the region in favour of competing with the US on the basis of an alternative regional approach founded on close Saudi-Iran ties, which would, over time, culminate in a cooperative regional security arrangement.