Middle Byzantine Research Articles

“Something Is Rotten in the State of Denmark” – Diseases of Emperors and Prominent Persons in Byzantine Historical Narratives as an Expression of Turmoil in the Empire

The Byzantine emperors and officials suffered from the diseases. Information about them was employed in Byzantine historical texts as a literary motif in order to express corruption of the ruling class in the Empire and criticism of imperial policy. This motif can be dated to the earliest centuries of Christian literature. At that time it was used to illustrate the just punishment of God inflicted upon the persecutors of the Christians. A commonly held belief was that those who did not adhere to the canons established at the first Church councils were also susceptible to illness. The writers of the early Byzantine period exploited this motif to express the criticism of the imperial policy and to assert that certain emperors were undeserving of the Byzantine throne. This trend persisted throughout the Middle Byzantine period. The iconoclastic emperors, Leo III and Constantine V, succumbed to severe illnesses as a consequence of their transgressions against the Church. The development of Byzantine political thought is especially perceived in the historical work of Michael Psellus. In his Chronographia the criticism of the imperial policy reached its zenith. Psellus employed the metaphor of illness to illustrate the pervasive decline of the Empire under the rule of unsuitable emperors in the 11th century. On occasion, the affliction was associated with certain individuals. In this manner, Byzantine historians depicted these figures as antiheroes. Such was the case with John II Comnenus in the Alexiad, a historical account written by his sister Anna Comnene. Byzantine intellectual Nicetas Choniates also narrates about emperors and prominent political figures who suffered from certain illnesses. The overall condition of these characters would invariably deteriorate concurrently with the occurrence of significant political developments. The literary motif of “diseases” persisted until the 15th century. In the Late Byzantine period, the same literary device was utilised by the Byzantine historians to censure the rulers and to expose the “heretics” at the time of the hesychast controversy. The illnesses that befell the prominent political figures in the Byzantine Empire were not fictionalised. This assertion can be substantiated by other sources pertaining to the narratives in question. In this manner, Byzantine historians ensured the veracity of their accounts. The literary motif was employed as a convenient means to serve the purpose of the authors. Lastly, the research demonstrated that there are few examples of illnesses being used to express the sufferings of the dethroned emperor Romanus IV Diogenus. In the works of Michael Attaleiates and Scylitzes Continuatus, Romanus IV was perceived as righteous Job. Thus the motif of diseases was also employed in a favourable manner, as a metaphor to illustrate fortitude and perseverance in the face of significant adversity. The article consists of the following sections: Introduction; Methodology; Results; and General Remarks; as well as Early Byzantine Period; Middle Byzantine Period; Late Byzantine Period; The Trial of “righteous” Job; and Conclusion.

Analiza antropologică a resturilor scheletice dintr-un mormânt triplu de inhumaţie din perioada medio-bizantină de la Nufăru – Curtea şcolii, jud. Tulcea

Recent preventive archaeological excavations carried out in the courtyard of a local school in the village of Nufăru have led to the documentation of a Middle Byzantine inhumation cemetery comprising 191 funerary complexes. Among the individual burials, which are exclusive within the cemetery, our attention was drawn to a multiple burial containing the skeletal remains of three individuals: two adult females (a young adult ‑ approximately 34.6 years old, and a middle adult – approximately 43.3 years old) framing the skeleton of a subadult. The skeletal remains of the subadult belong to a child of approximately 10.0 years old. Beyond the issues raised by this less common practice in the Dobrudja funerary archaeology landscape regarding burial rituals, determining the cause of death for these three individuals becomes essential for the anthropologist. In the case of the middle adult, death most likely occurred due to a blow inflicted with a sharp object, such as a sword, in the cervical region. However, the situation is not as clear regarding the other two deceased individuals. Several atypical pathognomonic manifestations (hypervascularization and resorptive lesions on the bodies of all vertebrae, except for the cervical ones) observed in the child’s skeleton seem to indicate an infection with one of the species of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. These macroscopically observed changes need to be confirmed by genetic analyses. As for the cause of death of the young adult, it remains a mystery despite numerous osteological (cribra orbitalia, osteoarthritis, spinal disc herniation, periostitis, vertebral compression fracture, osteomas, osteochondritis dissecans) and dental (caries, dental calculus, dental enamel hypoplasia, ante‑mortem tooth loss, congenital absences) pathological changes noted. Other pathological manifestations identified in the case of the middle adult include: cribra orbitalia, caries, dental calculus, dental abscesses, ante‑mortem tooth loss, congenital absences, osteoarthritis, spinal disc herniation, periostitis, Colles’ fracture, and osteochondritis dissecans. In the case of the child, cribra orbitalia, caries, dental calculus, and periostitis were also observed.

Un mormânt triplu aparținând epocii medio‑bizantine, descoperit la Nufăru – Curtea școlii, jud. Tulcea

The archaeological investigations carried out since 1978 have revealed a Byzantine fortress, erected at the end of the 10th century, with settlements and cemeteries dating until the middle of the 13th century, overlapped by the present‑day village of Nufăru. The rescue archaeological excavations of 2022, in the school yard of the village, for a public development project, have confirmed and completed the information about two habitation layers and a necropolis (191 inhumation graves, W‑E oriented), located in the eastern area, outside the walls. The contribution includes preliminary considerations about the cemetery, with an overlook on a triple burial complex, analysed in the context of the Christian graveyards of the Middle Byzantine Dobrudja.

What jewelry did people wear in the Middle Byzantine period (10th-12th C. CE) in the Peloponnese? A technological and analytical case study

The present paper presents the preliminary results of the archaeometric analysis of a Middle Byzantine jewelry assemblage made of non-precious metals from the ancient site of Pallantion, near Tripoli (Peloponnese, Greece). The assemblage under examination consists of 26 artifacts, including earrings, finger rings and buckles. Macroscopic observations and optical microscopy were used to examine the manufacturing technology of the artifacts, with a particular focus on the manufacturing technology of wires. The proposed methodology combined a Handheld X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (HH-XRF) and a Micro X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (μ-XRF) to group the alloys used in the manufacture of the jewelry, despite the presence of corrosion. This methodology indicated that the majority of the artifacts was made of bronze, leaded or not, and gunmetal. Moreover, a quantification criterion was used to determine the state of preservation of the surface of the jewelry. Overall, the present study highlights the manufacturing technology of jewelry of the Middle Byzantine period and the tendency to imitate silver jewelry with lower-cost materials.

City and Countryside in Byzantine Anatolia: Amorium

Amorium is a key site for the period AD 700-900 owing to its historical importance as the capital of the Anatolic Theme. The well preserved remains provide an exceptional opportunity to study the layout and function of the Byzantine city and its excavation sheds light on the transition, modification, and continuity of the settlement between the Late Roman and Byzantine periods. The evidence from twenty years of excavation points to the existence of a large and prosperous city during Early and Middle Byzantine times, where various trades and crafts were practised and which served as the centre of a vibrant rural community engaged in agriculture as well as animal husbandry. The destruction layers from the capture of Amorium by the Arabs in 838 create a fixed horizon and reference point for the entire archaeology and material culture of early to mid-ninth century Anatolia. Pottery and coin finds in particular provide good indicators of the level and nature of economic activity. In this study some conclusions are drawn from that material, and discussion of it is set in the context of other sites and the interpretation of finds there. The evidence from Amorium presents new insights that appear at odds with accepted views of the Byzantine world in the Early Middle Ages.

Фторы и звукорядные модуляции в средневизантийском распеве (на материале классической редакции Стихираря XIII – XIV вв.)

The Middle Byzantine diastematic notation knows a number of particular signs – the phthorai – indicating modal changes. Being added to the interval neumes, they convey information that could not be seen from the neumes themselves, namely, about scale structure of Middle Byzantine hymns.Phthorai of archaic type are placed on the intonation of ascending forth g-c in a melodic element of the mode “nana”. Latest phthorai, which had been added to Middle Byzantine singing manuscripts in post-Byzantine period, are of different types. The paper deals with one of them, the phthora of the tritos mode (c). It is found in chants of all eight modes, in different melodic context, placed on c and one fifth downwards, on f. It indicates small interval, i.e. one half-step below the neume on which the phthora occurs. However, in few other cases phthorai “c” are found on another pitch. From these transposed phthorai we can learn about interval structure of melodic formulae and, more specifically, about scale modulations.The paper presents an analysis of two stichera: “To tritto tes eroteseos” to Saint Peter, in tetartos mode, and “Deute makarisomen apantes Iosef” for Holy Saturday, in plagios deuteros mode. The author draws conclusion that their modal structure contains a scale modulation. Some melodic configurations or more large melodic formulae should be transcribed to the modern notation system with accidentals, in these cases, f-sharp. Modulations may serve as an artistic mean to stress the structure of the hymn and to convey its author’s line of thought.

“The Gates of Eternal Life”: Metamorphosis and Performativity in Middle to Late Byzantine Sculpted Church Doors (with a Case Study of a Wallachian Wooden Door)

In recent years, there has been a growing interest in analyzing the manufacturing techniques of Byzantine church doors in laboratory settings. However, the connection between the iconography and significance of the décor of church doors and their liturgical performativity, as well as their parallels with iconostases in Byzantium, remained a relatively underexplored area of study. This article seeks to delve deeper into these intersections. By focusing on the relationship between the iconography of church doors in Middle to Late Byzantium and their connection to the sacred space and liturgical practices, I aim to shed light on how these artworks played a crucial role in the sacred experience of the Byzantines. This exploration will not highlight only the aesthetic evolution of church door artwork but also emphasize the communal and embodied nature of the religious experience during the Byzantine era. Their intricate designs were not merely decorative elements but served as portals to the divine, enriching the salvation journey of worshippers as they crossed the threshold into the liturgical spaces. By conducting an examination of the development of door iconography and their symbolism throughout the empire’s history, the transformation of narrative depictions from the Middle Byzantine era to the Palaiologan period, culminating in a convergence of symbolic meanings within the sacred space of the church, is delineated. This transformation is further exemplified by a sculpted church door from the Principality of Wallachia. By bridging the gap between art history and religious studies, this article aims to rekindle interest in the profound symbolism and significance of Byzantine church doors and their relation to sacred liturgical space, offering a broader perspective on an important aspect of Byzantine heritage.

Changes in Town and Country in Late Antiquity and into the Early Medieval Period in Greece and the Aegean Islands

The Greek Aegean in the Late Roman era (5th-mid-7th centuries AD) offers a degree of uniformity, developing further the novel urban and rural patterns that mark the previous Imperial centuries. Characteristically, small towns with fortifications and lavish Christian monuments are surrounded by commercial villa estates, while populations shrink drastically from the mid-6th century. In the 7th-8th centuries fundamental regional divergences appear. Most of mainland Greece is lost to the Eastern Roman (aka Early Byzantine) Empire based at Constantinople, the largest towns and coastal ports excepted, following waves of Slavic settlement. A second model is found on the Aegean Islands, where reduced populations largely survive Arab raids and alien settlement through settlement displacement and negotiation. A third model is represented by the large island of Crete, free from invasion until Arab conquest in the 9th century, ironically when a revived Eastern Roman (Middle Byzantine) Empire regains control of the mainland and remaining Aegean Islands. This paper will present the evidence from archaeology for these scenarios, varying in time and space.

The Byzantine cave monastery of the Ilgarini mağarası (Paphlagonia) – the Chryse Petra of Nikon Metanoite?

AbstractThis paper discusses the hitherto virtually unknown Byzantine cave monastery in the Ilgarini mağarası in the district of Pınarbaşı/Kastamonu based on its building remains, graffiti (mostly crosses), burials and notable finds. The remains were recorded during two brief surveys in 2012 and 2022. To shed light on the history of the site, an attempt is made to contex- tualise it within the mountainous regions of Middle Byzantine Paphlagonia, as well as with Middle Byzantine texts that relate to monasticism and might refer to the site. Research produces tentative evidence that the Ilgarini mağarası may be identified with the Chryse Petra known from several Byzantine texts, most prominently the Life of St Nikon Metanoite.

Deconstructing an Iconography: Depictions of Constantine and Helena in Middle Byzantine Cappadocia

Deconstructing an Iconography: Depictions of Constantine and Helena in Middle Byzantine Cappadocia

Strategic Planning in the Middle Byzantine Period: A "Limitrophe" Policy Reintroduced?

In order to maintain or improve its political stability and overall might every state conducts certain policies, both domestic and foreign, throughout its history. They are usually a result of a systematic planning, encompassing in the process multiple state sectors. The Byzantine Empire was no exception. Throughout centuries of existence, the imperial government implemented numerous reforms and carried out reorganisation in the military, administrative and fiscal departments, with the intention to improve its governance. Creation of the military commands – strategides, thémata and tágmata corps are only some of the changes, and their implementation certainly required prior planning in accordance with the requirements and capacity of the state. In relation to foreign policy, starting from the mid-ninth century, a formation of a number of client states that were more or less politically dependent on Constantinople can be observed on the Byzantine borders; their existence ended around the mid-eleventh century. This paper aims to examine the process of establishing client states on the Byzantine borders, i.e., whether it was a policy initiated and subsequently applied by the imperial government as a result of some pre-determined planning, or whether it was just an ad hoc solution. This paper was presented on the 24th International Congress of Byzantine Studies, Venice and Padua, 22-27 August 2022.

The Hymnography of the Middle Byzantine Ecclesiastic Rite & Its Festal Theology: Introduction—Edition & Translation—Commentary By Gregory Tucker

The Hymnography of the Middle Byzantine Ecclesiastic Rite & Its Festal Theology: Introduction—Edition & Translation—Commentary By Gregory Tucker

Изображения рыб на поливной византийской керамике XII–XIII веков. Стилистические группы

Introduction. The study of zoomorphic ornamental motifs on specific types of glazed ceramics is an important direction of Byzantine archeology. In this case, we will be interested in the images of fish that are found on some types of Byzantine glazed ceramics of the second half of 12th – second half of 13th century. Since the ceramic production of this group of vessels was a separate area, both the material and spiritual culture of the Byzantines, especially in the specified chronological period, it was chosen as the subject of research. The source base of the work is made up of all published and available materials of archaeological research, both Constantinople and the cities of the Byzantine provinces. Particular attention is paid to the correspondence of each of the highlighted images on a specific type of glazed ware to finds on the territory of medieval Taurica. Despite the publication of the material used, including the Crimean, these findings were not analyzed in the complex. Methods and materials. Standard methods of comparative stylistic analysis were used. Analysis. The use of a large number of sources allows for the first time to raise the question of the existence of several stylistic groups of fish within the same craft workshops. Results. The findings make it possible to distinguish five stylistic image groups and match them with two large groups of Byzantine glazed ceramics of Middle Byzantine Production, primarily Fine Sgraffito Ware and Incised Sgraffito or Aegean Ware. Images of fish on Cypriot ceramics are also briefly analyzed. The image of fish on the vessels of Italian workshops is a separate area of research and is not considered in the work.

Remarks on the collection of Byzantine lead seals of the Barber Institute of Fine Arts (University of Birmingham): mobility, networks, and identity in eastern Pontos

The Byzantine lead seals of the Barber Institute of Fine Arts number in total 146 pieces, mostly collected in the region of Trebizond. They offer valuable insights into the middle Byzantine society of the Pontos region, which despite its location on the easternmost borders was connected with other, even more remote, regions of the empire. The majority of these seals come from local officials and reflect their local preoccupations, perhaps as a backlash to the dominant culture of the capital. Fifteen selected pieces from the collection are published here and provided with commentary.

Störende Statuen?

Abstract Ancient statues continued to be visible in the cityscape of Constantinople after Late Antiquity. Myths and legends often arose around them, as their original meaning and designation had been forgotten. This article discusses examples from the early and middle Byzantine periods in order to show which functions statues assumed in the understanding of imperial power and which messages they could convey. It is not surprising that statues were able to influence the public discourse on the one hand, and that the emperor could exercise dominion and assert his sovereignty of opinion with these visible monuments on the other.

Penning Entertainment in Holy Stories: Humour and Horror in Middle Byzantine Hagiography

Penning Entertainment in Holy Stories: Humour and Horror in Middle Byzantine Hagiography

Стихира-осмогласник Успению «Богоначальным мановением» (“Θεαρχίῳ νεύματι”) в редакции средневизантийского Стихираря

An octo-modal hymn in Byzantine liturgical chant is a particular composition type, in which melody runs through all eight modes of the Octoechos. The paper discusses one of such hymns – Sticheron to the Dormition “Thearkhio neumati” as it appears in the Middle Byzantine singing tradition. This melodic version – “Standard Abridged Version” as it is called by Byzantinists – was widely spread in late 12th – 14th centuries and can be found in many manuscripts, written in the diastematic “round” notation that can be read and transcribed.The author presents a detailed study of different melodic and graphic features of the Sticheron: its notation, modal composition, melodic formulae and their cadences. The graphic version from Middle Byzantine manuscripts shows some peculiarity in using modal signatures (called in Greek tradition “martyria”). These signs, marking a modulation or a cadence on a secondary tone, are not obligatory in this version: their number and position change from one manuscript to another without affecting neither the melody of the hymn nor its modal composition. Study of melodico-modal features of the Sticheron reveals, on the other hand, significant similarity in modal and formulae content between authentic modes and their respective plagal modes. Therefore, in a larger sense, the composition of the Sticheron includes not eight, but four wholly distinctive modal sections. There are also other peculiarities: transposition of some melodic formulae; minor discrepancies the melody shows in different manuscripts; some elements of oral singing tradition surviving in the graphic version.In the Appendix to the article, the author presents the full transcription of the Sticheron from Middle Byzantine neumes to modern notation system.

The capacity for self-sufficiency of Middle Byzantine urban settlements

The capacity for self-sufficiency of Middle Byzantine urban settlements

Byzantine Childhood: Representations and Experiences of Children in Middle Byzantine Society by Oana-Maria Cojocaru (review)

Byzantine Childhood: Representations and Experiences of Children in Middle Byzantine Society by Oana-Maria Cojocaru (review)

Saints' mobility and confinement: deconstructing Byzantine stories of (fe)male ascetics and monastics.

This article investigates stories of holiness which have ascetics or monastics as their hero(in)es and which develop based on a careful interlocking of two concepts: wanderings in urban or desert environments and self-confinement in enclosed or secluded spaces. Through a close reading of two saints' Lives (i.e., the Life of Mary of Egypt and the Life of Matrona of Perge) dating to the early and middle Byzantine periods, the present analysis uncovers the tripartite relationship between movement, confinement, and spiritual advancement from a literary-narrative point of view, thus deepening our understanding of asceticism and monasticism in Byzantine contexts.