Microbial biological control agents are a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides, yet their widespread application is limited by a lack of environmental resilience of commercial products. To address this, we exploited honey—a stringent ecological niche—as a reservoir for stress-tolerant bacteria. In this study, the bioprospection utilizing five types of commercially available honeys yielded a collection of 53 bacteria and 10 fungi. All bacterial isolates were evaluated for antimicrobial activity against a laboratory-standard bacterium and yeast, and six economically relevant phytopathogenic microorganisms. Initial screening with standard laboratory organisms proved to be an efficient method to detect strains with antimicrobial potential, correlating significantly with further phytopathogen inhibition (Spearman’s r = 0.4512, p = 0.0005). Two promising strains, M2.7 and M3.18, were selected for quantitative dual-culture assays along with molecular identification using 16S rDNA and gyrA gene sequencing, classifying them as Bacillus velezensis. These strains exhibited high inhibitory effects against the pathogens (p > 0.001), often with equivalent efficacy to the commercial biocontrol strain, and also induced significant phytopathogen hyphal deformities, such as increased septation and swelling. These findings support honey as a viable source of robust biocontrol agents, offering a sustainable strategy to substitute or complement current agrochemicals.

ABSTRACT Downy mildew (DM) is a destructive disease that significantly reduces the yield and quality of important pulses (legumes) and horticultural crops, particularly during humid and cool seasons. This disease is caused by obligate and host‐specific oomycete pathogens. Controlling the pathogen is challenging due to its long‐term spore survival and rapid mutation. Although chemical pesticides have been the most effective method to control DM pathogens, their environmental hazards remain a global concern. Current research is focused on exploring the potential of microbial biological control agents (MBCA), particularly rhizobacteria strains of the genera Bacillus and Pseudomonas , which have shown suppression of plant pathogens. However, to date, no MBCA has been reported to be effective against DM pathogens in pulses. We investigated the effectiveness of Bacillus and Pseudomonas strains as potential biopesticides against the pea downy mildew pathogen Peronospora viciae f. sp. pisi (Pvp). In vitro bioassays showed 100% inhibition of Pvp spore germination compared to the control. In planta antagonism assays further demonstrated significant suppression (> 80%) of Pvp sporulation in pea plants sprayed with strains of Bacillus velezensis or Pseudomonas fluorescens or their filtrates. The drench application also showed significant effects where either a Pseudomonas or cold‐adapted Bacillus strain was used. We observed a synergistic effect for the dual foliar application of the microbes compared to individual application (40%–78% suppression). Molecular biomass analysis supported these findings. Based on these results, we conclude that Bacillus and Pseudomonas MBCAs could be highly effective in combating Pvp infections in the field.

Microbial biological control agents are increasingly used as an alternative to synthetic pesticides. The application of these microorganisms massively affects all members of plant-colonising microbial communities, including pathogenic fungi. In the majority of cases, the resulting competition for ecological niches is decided by the toxicity of microbial secondary metabolites (SMs) formed. In this study, we devised confrontation experiments employing the fungal maize pathogen Colletotrichum graminicola and antagonistic partners, that is the biocontrol bacterium Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and the ubiquitous ascomycete Aspergillus nidulans. Transcriptome studies uncovered strong de-regulation of the vast majority of the C. graminicola secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters (SMBGCs), with 69% and 86% of these clusters de-regulated at confrontation sites with B. amyloliquefaciens or A. nidulans, respectively. In the biocontrol bacterium and in A. nidulans confronting the maize pathogen, 100% and 74% of the SMBGCs were transcriptionally de-regulated, respectively. Correspondingly, non-targeted high-resolution LC-MS/MS revealed a large repertoire of 1738 and 1466 novel features formed in the fungus-bacterium and fungus-fungus confrontation, respectively. Surprisingly, several of these belong to chemical classes with lead structures of synthetic fungicides.

Postharvest losses of Solanaceae crops, which include potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), bell peppers (Capsicum annuum), and others, are one of the major challenges in agriculture throughout the world, impacting food security and economic viability. Agrochemicals have been successfully employed to prevent postharvest losses in agriculture. However, the excessive use of agrochemicals may cause detrimental effects on consumer health, the emergence of pesticide-resistant pathogens, increased restrictions on existing pesticides, environmental harm, and the decline of beneficial microorganisms, such as natural antagonists to pests and pathogens. Hence, there is a need to search for a safer and more environmentally friendly alternative. Microbial antagonists have gained more attention in recent years as substitutes for the management of pests and pathogens because they minimize the excessive applications of toxic substances while providing a sustainable approach to plant health management. However, more research is required to make microbial agents more stable and effective and less toxic before they can be used in commercial settings. Therefore, research is being conducted to develop new biological control agents and obtain knowledge of the mechanisms of action that underlie biological disease control. To accomplish this objective, the review aims to investigate microbial antagonists’ modes of action, potential future applications for biological control agents, and difficulties encountered during the commercialization process. We also highlight earlier publications on the function of microbial biological control agents against postharvest crop diseases. Therefore, we can emphasize that the prospects for biological control are promising and that the use of biological control agents to control crop diseases can benefit the environment.

Endophytes are becoming increasingly popular as a means of enhancing agricultural productivity, and they are seen as an important aspect in sustainable agriculture. These beneficial fungi form symbiotic relationships with plants, enhancing their growth, health, and resilience. Endophytes improve soil fertility by solubilizing minerals, fixing nitrogen, and producing plant growth-promoting substances. They also confer drought tolerance, disease resistance, and pest control, reducing the need for chemical inputs. Additionally, endophytes promote soil biodiversity, structure, and carbon sequestration, contributing to ecosystem services. Fungal endophytes residing symbiotically inside the plant tissues play an important role in the growth promotion and resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses and diseases in plants. Endophytic fungi stimulate plant growth, lower oxidative stress, increase nutrient uptake, and alter levels of various phytohormones in plants grown in stressed conditions. Endophytic fungi are used as the most common microbial biological control agents (MBCAs) against various phytopathogens in the form of enhanced plant growth and induced systemic resistance, produce a variety of antifungal secondary metabolites (lipopeptides, antibiotics and enzymes) through colonization. By harnessing endophytes, we can develop innovative, eco-friendly solutions for sustainable food production, mitigating environmental impacts, and ensuring food security for future generations.

Sustainable agricultural practices are essential for eradicating global hunger, especially in light of the growing world population. Utilizing natural antagonists, such as fungi and bacteria, to combat plant diseases, rather than relying solely on synthetic chemical pesticides, which pose significant risks to the environment and human health, is known as biocontrol. Microbial biological control agents (MBCAs) have proven effective against phytopathogens and are increasingly embraced in agricultural practices. MBCAs possess several beneficial traits, including antagonistic potential, rhizosphere competence, and the ability to produce lytic enzymes, antibiotics, and toxins. These biocontrol mechanisms directly target soil-borne pathogens or indirectly stimulate a plant-mediated resistance response. The effectiveness of MBCAs in managing plant diseases depends on various mechanisms, such as hyperparasitism, antibiosis, competition for nutrients or space, disruption of quorum-sensing signals, production of siderophores, generation of cell wall-degrading enzymes, and the induction and priming of plant resistance. Formulating effective biopesticides requires optimal conditions, including selecting effective strains, considering biosafety, appropriate storage methods, and ensuring a prolonged shelf life. Therefore, formulation is crucial in developing pesticide products, particularly concerning efficacy and production costs. However, several challenges must be addressed to ensure the successful application of biological control, including the shelf life of biopesticides, slower efficacy in pest management, inadequate awareness and understanding of biocontrol methods, regulatory registration for commercialization, and suitable agricultural applications. This review clarifies the principles of plant disease biocontrol, highlighting the mechanisms of action and functionality of MBCAs in biocontrol activities, the formulation of biopesticides derived from microorganisms, and the challenges and barriers associated with the development, registration, commercialization, and application of biopesticides.

Seed coating technologies are used to cover seeds with external materials including propagules of microbial biological control agents (MBCA). Protection of MBCA during seed processing and handling is essential to achieve long shelf-life of coated MBCA. The viability of MBCA added to slurries prepared before use for seed coating should thus not be affected. The survival of Cladosporium cladosporioides H39 and Lysobacter enzymogenes 3.1T8 in slurries provided by seed companies was quantified by previously designed strain-specific viability-qPCR assays. The effects of storage temperature and storage duration of slurries on survival of the added microorganisms were also quantified. Viability of added inocula decreased by more than 90% within a few days in most slurries, even if stored at low temperature (5°C). However, for certain slurry-MBCA combinations, reduction in viability was less than 90% during the initial days of storage. Selection of MBCA with long shelflife on coated seeds and adaptations of seed processing technologies to protect MBCA during seed processing and handling are essential for a change from chemical to biological seed treatments for control of seedling diseases.

Abstract The need of today’s world is enhanced production and quality of the crops in an eco-friendly manner. In the absence of complete host plant resistance in crops against insect pests, biological control forms a more sustainable and integral part of management ecosystem. Microbial biological control agents, especially entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), offer eco-friendly pest management solutions. Unlike other pathogens, EPF can infect pests upon contact with their propagules. However, environmental factors like temperature, UV light and pollutants often reduce the effectiveness of epiphytic EPF in the field. Endophytic EPF, residing within plant tissues, are gaining popularity for their resilience under adverse conditions. Hence, the research was conducted to observe the endophytic effect of native Beauveria bassiana UHSB-END1 against Spodoptera litura in cabbage. The bioassay investigations pertaining to both in-vivo and in-planta revealed that S. litura mortality peaked at 30 days after inoculation. Furthermore, larvae that consumed cabbage leaves colonized by fungi showed disrupted growth and abnormal developmental patterns, indicating a negative impact on their physiological development. By introducing this native biological product to control insect pests in cabbage habitats, it is possible to produce with minimal pesticide residue for commercial consumption while maintaining environmental integrity.

In recent years, as a result of the introduction of the European Commission’s recommendations on limiting the use of chemical plant protection products in favor of non-chemical ones, an increase in the available range of microbial biological control agents has also been observed in field crops protection. 8 bioinsecticides and 12 biofungicides have already been registered for these crops in Poland. Strains of the entomopathogenic bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis and one strain of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana are mainly used to control plant pests. Strains of the antagonistic fungi Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum, the hyperparasitic fungus Coniothyrium minitans and the fungus-like organism Pythium oligandrum are used to control plant disease. The bacterium Pseu­domonas sp. is also used, and the bacterium Bacillus amyloliquefaciens has been registered for dressing. Intensive scientific research is currently underway to improve the effectiveness of biological control agents. Innovative formulations are being created to increase their efficacy and extend the storage period. The future will also include plant protection programs with the combined use of beneficial mi­croorganisms and macroorganisms. This publication presents currently available microbiological plant protection products used in field plant protection, analyzes current and future research on their use and improvement of formulations.

The application of synthetic fungicides has resulted in environmental pollution and adverse effects on non-target species. To reduce the use of agrochemicals, crop disease management requires microbial biological control agents. Bacillus-related genera produce secondary metabolites to control fungal pathogens. Bacillus velezensis GYUN-1190, isolated from soil, showed antagonistic activity against Colletotrichum fructicola, the apple anthracnose pathogen. Volatile organic compounds and culture filtrate (CF) from GYUN-1190 inhibited C. fructicola growth in vitro, by 80.9% and 30.25%, respectively. The CF of GYUN-1190 inhibited pathogen spore germination more than cell suspensions at 10 8 cfu/ml. Furthermore, GYUN-1190 CF is effective in inhibiting C. fructicola mycelial growth in vitro, and it suppresses apple fruit bitter rot more effectively than GYUN-1190 cell suspensions and pyraclostrobin in planta. The mycelial growth of C. fructicola was completely inhibited 48 h after immersion into the CF, in compared with positive controls and GYUN-1190 cell suspensions. The genetic mechanism underlying the biocontrol features of GYUN-1190 was defined using its whole-genome sequence, which was closely compared to similar strains. It consisted of 4,240,653 bp with 45.9% GC content, with 4,142 coding sequences, 87 tRNA, and 28 rRNA genes. The genomic investigation found 14 putative secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters. The investigation suggests that B. velezensis GYUN-1190 might be more effective than chemical fungicides and could address its potential as a biological control agent.

Biological control of seedborne pathogens and soilborne seedling pathogens through antagonists applied on seeds is an alternative to chemical seed treatments. Information on the viability of inocula on treated seeds is essential for any development and use of beneficial fungi or bacteria on seeds. Generic fungal and bacterial qPCR assays were combined with the nucleic acid intercalating dyes ethidium monoazide (EMA) and propidium monoazide (PMAxx) for the quantification of viable cells of fungi and bacteria on seeds. The applied protocols for generic fungal viability qPCR (v-qPCR) in combination with EMA and PMAxx and for generic bacterial v-qPCR in combination with PMAxx allowed the viability quantification of fungal and bacterial isolates representing a broad range of species with the exception of fungal species with highly melanized conidia. A first application of v-qPCR to coated seeds of onion and spinach indicated a differential plant species effect on survival of a coated fungus and a yeast with a generally better survival on seeds of spinach compared to seeds of onions and a similar good survival of the bacterium L. enzymogenes 3.1T8 on both seed types. The v-qPCR protocols can be applied in screening assays aiming at the selection of new antagonists with higher survival potentials and the development of new seed processing technologies compatible with coated antagonists.

Stenotrophomonas is a prominent genus owing to its dual nature. Species of this genus have many applications in industry and agriculture as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and microbial biological control agents, whereas species such as Stenotrophomonas maltophilia are considered one of the leading gram-negative multi-drug-resistant bacterial pathogens because of their high contribution to the increase in crude mortality and significant clinical challenge. Pathogenic Stenotrophomonas species and most clinical isolates belong to the Stenotrophomonas maltophilia complex (SMc). However, a strain highly homologous to S. terrae was isolated from a patient with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB), which aroused our interest, as S. terrae belongs to a relatively distant clade from SMc and there have been no human association reports. The pathogenicity, immunological and biochemical characteristics of 610A2T were systematically evaluated. 610A2T is a new species of genus Stenotrophomonas, which is named as Stenotrophomonas pigmentata sp. nov. for its obvious brown water-soluble pigment. 610A2T is pathogenic and caused significant weight loss, pulmonary congestion, and blood transmission in mice because it has multiple virulence factors, haemolysis, and strong biofilm formation abilities. In addition, the cytokine response induced by this strain was similar to that observed in patients with TB, and the strain was resistant to half of the anti-TB drugs. The pathogenicity of 610A2T may not be weaker than that of S. maltophilia. Its isolation extended the opportunistic pathogenic species to all 3 major clades of the genus Stenotrophomonas, indicating that the clinical importance of species of Stenotrophomonas other than S. maltophilia and potential risks to biological safety associated with the use of Stenotrophomonas require more attention.

Microbial biological control agents are believed to be a potential alternative to classical fertilizers to increase the sustainability of agriculture. In this work, the formulation of Trichoderma afroharzianum T22 (T22) spores with carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and Pluronic F-127 (PF-127) solutions was investigated. Rheological and microscopical analysis were performed on T22-based systems at three different CMC/PF-127 concentrations, showing that polymer aggregates tend to surround T22 spores, without viscosity, and the viscoelastic properties of the formulations were affected. Contact angle measurements showed the ability of PF-127 to increase the wettability of the systems, and the effect of the formulations on the viability of the spores was evaluated. The viability of the spores was higher over 21 days in all the formulations, compared to the control in water, at 4 and 25 °C. Finally, the effectiveness of the formulations on sweet basil was estimated by greenhouse tests. The results revealed a beneficial effect of the CMC/PF-127 mixture, but none on the formulation with T22. The data show the potential of CMC/PF-127 mixtures for the future design of microorganism-based formulations.

Plant health promoting organisms, including microbial biological control agents, are of increasing importance for the development of more sustainable agriculture. To understand the function of these microbes as biological control agents under field conditions and their overall impact on soil and plant health, we need to learn more about the impact of plant beneficial microbes on the rhizosphere microbiome of crops such as potato. The plant beneficial oomycete Pythium oligandrum has previously been reported both as a biocontrol agent and as a plant growth promoter, or biostimulant, in several crop species. To investigate the potential of P. oligandrum as a biostimulant in potato, we performed a series of controlled-environment bioassays in three cultivars. We showed that biostimulation of potato by P. oligandrum is plant genotype-specific. We confirmed the biostimulation by P. oligandrum in the starch potato cultivar Kuras under field conditions. We further investigated the effects of P. oligandrum on the potato rhizosphere microbiome, sampling individual potato plants at three time points over the growing season (representing the vegetative growth phase, flowering, and the onset of senescence). Metabarcoding using ITS and 16S amplicon sequencing revealed no significant overall effect of P. oligandrum application on the bacterial and fungal rhizosphere communities. However, some genera were significantly differentially abundant after P. oligandrum application, including some classified as plant-beneficial microbes. We conclude that P. oligandrum has a cultivar-dependent growth-promoting effect in potato and only minor effects on the rhizosphere microbiome.

Changes in parasite virulence are commonly expected to lead to trade-offs in other life history traits that can affect fitness. Understanding these trade-offs is particularly important if we want to manipulate the virulence of microbial biological control agents. Theoretically, selection across different spatial scales, i.e. between- and within-hosts, shapes these trade-offs. However, trade-offs are also dependent on parasite biology. Despite their applied importance the evolution of virulence in fungal parasites is poorly understood: virulence can be unstable in culture and commonly fails to increase in simple passage experiments. We hypothesized that manipulating selection intensity at different scales would reveal virulence trade-offs in a fungal pathogen of aphids, Akanthomyces muscarius. Starting with a genetically diverse stock we selected for speed of kill, parasite yield or infectivity by manipulating competition within and between hosts and between-populations of hosts over 7 rounds of infection. We characterized ancestral and evolved lineages by whole genome sequencing and by measuring virulence, growth rate, sporulation and fitness. While several lineages showed increases in virulence, we saw none of the trade-offs commonly found in obligately-killing parasites. Phenotypically similar lineages within treatments often shared multiple single-nucleotide variants, indicating strong convergent evolution. The most dramatic phenotypic changes were in timing of sporulation and spore production in vitro. We found that early sporulation led to reduced competitive fitness but could increase yield of spores on media, a trade-off characteristic of social conflict. Notably, the selection regime with strongest between-population competition and lowest genetic diversity produced the most consistent shift to early sporulation, as predicted by social evolution theory. Multi-level selection therefore revealed social interactions novel to fungi and showed that these biocontrol agents have the genomic flexibility to improve multiple traits-virulence and spore production-that are often in conflict in other parasites.

In a world with constant population growth, and in the context of climate change, the need to supply the demand of safe crops has stimulated an interest in ecological products that can increase agricultural productivity. This implies the use of beneficial organisms and natural products to improve crop performance and control pests and diseases, replacing chemical compounds that can affect the environment and human health. Microbial biological control agents (MBCAs) interact with pathogens directly or by inducing a physiological state of resistance in the plant. This involves several mechanisms, like interference with phytohormone pathways and priming defensive compounds. In Argentina, one of the world's main maize exporters, yield is restricted by several limitations, including foliar diseases such as common rust and northern corn leaf blight (NCLB). Here, we discuss the impact of pathogen infection on important food crops and MBCA interactions with the plant's immune system, and its biochemical indicators such as phytohormones, reactive oxygen species, phenolic compounds and lytic enzymes, focused mainly on the maize-NCLB pathosystem. MBCA could be integrated into disease management as a mechanism to improve the plant's inducible defences against foliar diseases. However, there is still much to elucidate regarding plant responses when exposed to hemibiotrophic pathogens.

Biological plant protection presents a promising and exciting alternative to chemical methods for safeguarding plants against the increasing threats posed by plant diseases. This approach revolves around the utilization of biological control agents (BCAs) to suppress the activity of significant plant pathogens. Microbial BCAs have the potential to effectively manage crop disease development by interacting with pathogens or plant hosts, thereby increasing their resistance. However, the current efficacy of biological methods remains unsatisfactory, creating new research opportunities for sustainable plant cultivation management. In this context, microbial consortia, comprising multiple microorganisms with diverse mechanisms of action, hold promise in terms of augmenting the magnitude and stability of the overall antipathogen effect. Despite scientific efforts to identify or construct microbial consortia that can aid in safeguarding vital crops, only a limited number of microbial consortia-based biocontrol formulations are currently available. Therefore, this article aims to present a complex analysis of the microbial consortia-based biocontrol status and explore potential future directions for biological plant protection research with new technological advancements.

Tea is one of the most widely consumed beverages around the world. Larvae of the moth, Ectropis obliqua Prout (Geometridae, Lepidoptera), are one of the most destructive insect pests of tea in China. E. obliqua is a polyphagus insect that is of increasing concern due to the development of populations resistant to certain chemical insecticides. Microbial biological control agents offer an environmentally friendly and effective means for insect control that can be compatible with "green" and organic farming practices. To identify novel E. obliqua biological control agents, soil and inset cadaver samples were collected from tea growing regions in the Fujian province, China. Isolates were analyzed morphologically and via molecular characterization to identity them at the species level. Laboratory and greenhouse insect bioassays were used to determine the effectiveness of the isolates for E. obliqua control. Eleven isolates corresponding to ten different species of Metarhizium were identified according to morphological and molecular analyses from soil and/or insect cadavers found on tea plants and/or in the surrounding soil sampled from eight different regions within the Fujian province, China. Four species of Metarhizium including M. clavatum, M. indigoticum, M. pemphigi, and M. phasmatodeae were documented for the first time in China, and the other species were identified as M. anisopliae, M. brunneum, M. lepidiotae, M. majus, M. pinghaense, and M. robertsii. Insect bioassays of the eleven isolates of Metarhizium revealed significant variation in the efficacy of each isolate to infect and kill E. obliqua. Metarhizium pingshaense (MaFZ-13) showed the highest virulence reaching a host target mortality rate of 93% in laboratory bioassays. The median lethal concentration (LC50) and median lethal time (LT50) values of M. pingshaense MaFZ-13 were 9.6 × 104 conidia/mL and 4.8 days, respectively. Greenhouse experiments and a time-dose-mortality (TDM) models were used to further evaluate and confirm the fungal pathogenic potential of M. pingshaense MaFZ-13 against E. obliqua larvae. Isolation of indigenous microbial biological control agents targeting specific pests is an effective approach for collecting resources that can be exploited for pest control with lowered obstacles to approval and commercialization. Our data show the presence of four different previously unreported Metarhizium species in China. Bioassays of the eleven different Metarhizium strains isolated revealed that each could infect and kill E. obliqua to different degrees with the newly isolated M. pingshaense MaFZ-13 strain representing a particularly highly virulent isolate potentially applicable for the control of E. obliqua larvae.

Plant pathogenic bacteria are a substantial and long-term danger to food supply and environmental stability across the planet. With the increase in agricultural productivity in the last few decades, farmers are getting reliant on agrochemicals as a reasonably consistent means of crop protection. But increased use of chemical inputs has various negative consequences, including disease resistance to the agents used and non-target environmental repercussions. Hence biological control is being explored as an alternative or supplement to chemical control in agriculture. This study reviews the interactions taking place between a given microorganism (fungi, bacteria, viruses) and a plant. The relation between the two organisms in the discussion can be encompassed in an elaborate manner based on the mutual gains and losses incurred by both the organisms. Microbes that interact with plants, can be manipulated and used as Biological Control Agents (BCA). BCAs are potentially seen as the alternative to using harmful chemicals in the name of fertilizers and weedicides. This study illustrates the various possible interactions between plant and other species, with specific emphasis on bacterial biocontrol and tries to answer the question: How can these interactions be articulated against a third, pathogenic and harmful species?

The Nagoya Protocol actions the third objective of the Convention on Biological Diversity and provides a framework to effectively implement the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of genetic resources. This includes microorganisms used as biological control agents. Thus biological control practitioners must comply with access and benefit-sharing regulations that are implemented by countries providing microbial biological control agents. A review of best practices and guidance for the use and exchange of microorganisms used for biological control has been prepared by the IOBC Global Commission on Biological Control and Access and Benefit-Sharing to demonstrate commitment to comply with access and benefit-sharing requirements, and to reassure the international community that biological control is a very successful and environmentally safe pest management strategy that uses biological resources responsibly and sustainably. We propose that best practices include the following elements: collaboration to facilitate information exchange about the availability of microbial biological control agents and where they may be sourced; freely sharing available knowledge in databases about successes and failures; collaborative research with provider countries to develop capacity; and production technology transfer to provide economic opportunities. We recommend the use of model concept agreements for accessing microorganisms for scientific research and non-commercial release into nature where access and benefit-sharing regulations exist and where regulations are not restrictive or do not exist. We also recommend a model agreement for deposition of microbial biological control agents into culture collections.