US-Mexico Border Research Articles

Social Transformation and Differential Inclusion: A Study of the Mobility and Labour of Indigenous People in the Agricultural Fields of Oaxacalifornia

This paper investigates how, amid broader processes of neoliberal social transformation, changes in agricultural production systems and processes of borderisation have influenced the mobility of Indigenous people and their labour across the Mexico-US border. Drawing from primary and secondary research with Mixtecos in Oaxaca and their countrymen and women who have settled as migrants with an irregular status in California, the article traces how the value of Indigenous labour has been redefined along the neoliberal ideal of the worker-citizen in ways that (re)produce their differential inclusion. This study shows that the simultaneous abandonment of small-scale agriculture across Mexico, and the development of industrial agriculture in the Californias, cemented the devaluation of their labour as “unproductive” and “inefficient” in Oaxaca while it led to their essential incorporation as migrant workers in the industrial fields. Likewise, I show that parallel efforts to restrict the mobility and increase the deportability of economically needed, but otherwise unwelcome migrants in the US further subordinated their labour as “illegal” and “low-skilled” in California.

Predictors of Vaccine Uptake among Migrants in the United States: A Rapid Systematic Review.

Evaluating challenges to vaccine uptake in non-US-born individuals is necessary for increasing national vaccination rates. This rapid review was conducted to investigate predictors of vaccine utilization among US migrants. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) checklist was utilized, along with the Rayyan webtool, to facilitate the process of identifying primary research articles. Data were independently extracted by using a piloted, customized form. This was tabulated and the results were reported. Of the 186 abstracts reviewed, nine articles were included. Populations included in this review were refugees (n = 1), undocumented migrants (n = 1), migrants crossing the US-Mexico border (n = 2), Blacks (n = 1), and US-born vs. non-US-born adults (n = 1). Three studies focused on "foreign-born" children. The vaccines included in the literature reviewed were both combined series and individual, with one study addressing immunization instead of specific vaccines. Detailed characteristics of these studies and their quality evaluations were also reported. This review identified gaps in research regarding immunization among different migrant groups. Multilevel interventions should be considered to leverage the existing facilitators and address the known modifiable barriers to creating an accessible and supportive environment for marginalized populations.

How can Mexican migrants reduce the risk of being abandoned by smugglers while clandestinely crossing the US–Mexico border?

Abstract This article analyzes the abandonments of Mexican migrants by their smugglers while crossing clandestinely the US–Mexico border. Drawing on the Emif-Norte survey, we examine the diversity of forms of abandonments and their adverse impacts to migrants while crossing the border; we discuss the agency capacity of migrants to anticipate and control the migration process in order to manage the risks of clandestine travel; and we use a logistic regression model to analyze the role played by the selection of the smuggler and the physical fitness of migrants in the risk of migrants to be abandoned by smugglers. Our findings suggest the presence of migrants with profiles vulnerable to abandonment (i.e. women, not having previous migration experience to the USA, hiring smugglers in border towns, or paying low smuggler fees), and preventive and protective strategies to reduce such risk (i.e. hiring smugglers in the place of origin, physical training prior to the journey or traveling accompanied by family members and friends), which are within the reach of some migrants more than others.

Impulsivity, Sexual Compulsivity, and Sexual Risk Behaviors among Hispanic Men Who Have Sex with Men in a US–Mexico Border City

Hispanic men who have sex with men (HMSM) experience HIV risk-related and mental health disparities. The relationship of mental health (i.e., depressive symptoms and anxiety) on sexual risk behaviors of HMSM has been reported. However, little is known about the influence of impulsivity and compulsivity on sexual risk behaviors. A cross-sectional study explored these factors among 150 HMSM in the El Paso, Texas area utilizing standardized measures, in a cross-sectional study. Regression analysis determined the influence of sexual impulsivity and compulsivity, and demographic variables on sexual risk behaviors, indicating interventions should target these behaviors to mitigate sexual risk among HMSM.

“We left the crop there lying in the field”: Agricultural worker experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic in a rural US-Mexico border region

California agricultural workers are predominately Latino/a, are medically underserved, and reside in larger households, placing them at elevated COVID-19 risk at work and at home. While some research has examined COVID-19 among agricultural workers in the interior of the United States, little research exists on experiences of COVID-19 along the US-Mexico border. Grounded in resilience thinking, this study aims to understand how agricultural workers navigated their heightened risk to COVID-19 at work and at home, and made use of available resources in the context of a bi-national community. Our study utilized qualitative interviews with 12 agricultural workers to understanding the COVID-19 experiences of resident and daily migrant agricultural workers in Imperial County, California, located along the US-Mexico border. Findings suggest that agricultural workers faced significant impacts and risks at work (work stoppages, stress about bringing COVID-19 home to family) and at home (contracting COVID-19, loss of friends and family, and mental health challenges). Agricultural workers and their employers often implemented COVID-19 precautions such as social distancing measures, personal protective equipment, hand washing and hand sanitizers, and isolation. Many agricultural workers did access testing resources on either side of the US-Mexico border and worked with US-based Spanish-speaking community-based organizations to register for vaccine appointments. To better support agricultural workers and their employers in the future, we recommend the following: 1. Prioritize agricultural workplace conditions to increase agricultural worker physical and mental health, 2. Extend public health services into agricultural work sites of transit and the workplace, and 3. Lastly, trusted Spanish-speaking community-based organizations can play a critical role in public health outreach.

S1607 The Efficacy of Bismuth Based Quadruple Therapy Compared With Clarithromycin-Based Triple Therapy for Helicobacter pylori in a Predominantly Hispanic Population: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Introduction: Helicobacter pylori has a prevalence of approximately 35% in the United States. Infection rates and antibiotic resistance are reported to be higher in immigrants from endemic areas such as Latin America. Clarithromycin based triple therapy had been used as the first line treatment; however, the updated ACG H. pylori guidelines in 2017 recommends bismuth based quadruple therapy as the first line treatment in a population with suspected clarithromycin resistance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of bismuth quadruple therapy compared with clarithromycin triple therapy in a predominantly Hispanic population on the US- Mexico border, as well as to assess the impact of insurance status and the 2017 ACG guidelines on the choice of treatment regimen. Methods: A retrospective cohort study of adult patients with H. pylori infection treated with clarithromycin triple therapy or bismuth quadruple therapy at a tertiary care county hospital on the US-Mexico border from January 2009 to March 2022 was conducted. Patients with unknown treatment regimens or an absence of an eradication test were excluded from the analysis. A logistic regression model adjusting for propensity scores using the inverse probability treatment weighting method was used to determine the relationship between eradication status and the treatment regimen. The analyses were adjusted for, age, gender, ethnicity, insurance, diabetes, smoking, illicit drug use, and PPI use. Results: A total of 938 patients were included, 201 patients (21.4%) in the quadruple regimen group and 737 patients (78.6%) in the triple regimen group. Mean age was 51 years, female (70.8%), Hispanic (90.4%), and non-insured patients (29.4%). The H. pylori eradication rate with quadruple therapy was significantly higher compared with triple therapy (91.5% vs 83.2% P=0.004) in unadjusted analysis and after adjusting for propensity scores (OR 2.43; 95% CI: [1.38 - 4.27], P=0.002). Following the 2017 ACG guidelines, the rate of using quadruple as the first line therapy increased from 11.1% to 24.6% (P< .0001). Furthermore, quadruple regimen therapy was more likely to be prescribed for insured (79.1%) compared with non-insured (20.9%) patients (P< 0.001) (Table). Conclusion: In a predominantly Hispanic population, bismuth quadruple therapy is more effective in H. pylori eradication compared with clarithromycin triple regimen. However, insurance status seems to influence the choice of recommended regimen in this high-risk population. Table 1. - Comparisons of characteristics between initial treatment regimens Initial Treatment Regimens Factor Bismuth Quadruple Clarithromycin Triple P-value N 201 737 Age (years) 0.017 Age at testing, mean (SD) 53.92 (13.44) 51.33 (13.66) Gender 0.080 Female 132 (65.67%) 532 (72.18%) Male 69 (34.33%) 205 (27.82%) Ethnicity 0.54 Non-Hispanic 16 (7.96%) 69 (9.36%) Hispanic 185 (92.04%) 668 (90.64%) Insurance status 0.003 No 42 (20.90%) 234 (31.75%) Yes 159 (79.10%) 503 (68.25%) Diabetes 0.93 No 151 (75.12%) 550 (74.63%) Yes 50 (24.88%) 187 (25.37%) Smoking history 0.76 No 165 (82.09%) 594 (80.82%) Yes 36 (17.91%) 141 (19.18%) Illicit drug use 0.58 No 195 (97.50%) 718 (98.09%) Yes 5 (2.50%) 14 (1.91%) PPI use before diagnosis 1.00 No 149 (75.63%) 547 (75.66%) Yes 48 (24.37%) 176 (24.34%) Type of eradication test < 0.001 Endoscopic biopsy 25 (12.44%) 69 (9.39%) Stool test 120 (59.70%) 302 (41.09%) Breath test 56 (27.86%) 364 (49.52%) Result of eradication test 0.004 Positive (failure of eradication) 17 (8.46%) 123 (16.73%) Negative (successful eradication) 184 (91.54%) 612 (83.27%) Gastric cancer 1.00 No 198 (99.50%) 725 (99.04%) Yes 1 (0.50%) 7 (0.96%) SD: standard deviation; PPI: proton pump inhibitor.

A Queer Sense of Love and Obligation at the US-Mexico Border

A Queer Sense of Love and Obligation at the US-Mexico Border

Pleistocene-Holocene vicariance, not Anthropocene landscape change, explains the genetic structure of American black bear (Ursus americanus) populations in the American Southwest and northern Mexico.

The phylogeography of the American black bear (Ursus americanus) is characterized by isolation into glacial refugia, followed by population expansion and genetic admixture. Anthropogenic activities, including overharvest, habitat loss, and transportation infrastructure, have also influenced their landscape genetic structure. We describe the genetic structure of the American black bear in the American Southwest and northern Mexico and investigate how prehistoric and contemporary forces shaped genetic structure and influenced gene flow. Using a suite of microsatellites and a sample of 550 bears, we identified 14 subpopulations organized hierarchically following the distribution of ecoregions and mountain ranges containing black bear habitat. The pattern of subdivision we observed is more likely a product of postglacial habitat fragmentation during the Pleistocene and Holocene, rather than a consequence of contemporary anthropogenic barriers to movement during the Anthropocene. We used linear mixed‐effects models to quantify the relationship between landscape resistance and genetic distance among individuals, which indicated that both isolation by resistance and geographic distance govern gene flow. Gene flow was highest among subpopulations occupying large tracts of contiguous habitat, was reduced among subpopulations in the Madrean Sky Island Archipelago, where montane habitat exists within a lowland matrix of arid lands, and was essentially nonexistent between two isolated subpopulations. We found significant asymmetric gene flow supporting the hypothesis that bears expanded northward from a Pleistocene refugium located in the American Southwest and northern Mexico and that major highways were not yet affecting gene flow. The potential vulnerability of the species to climate change, transportation infrastructure, and the US–Mexico border wall highlights conservation challenges and opportunities for binational collaboration.

Suturing or Puncturing the Social Fabric? Afro-Caribbean Textile Art and the Limits of Repair

In these Dialogues, Lorna Dillon brings together essays that explore the relationship between fiber art and social justice in Latin America. The authors discuss Chilean arpilleras, needlework projects and the struggle for peace in Colombia, the Mexican Embroidering for Peace Movement, and Margarita Cabrera’s fabric sculptures about the US-Mexico borderlands. The section brings the work of scholars from different regions into dialogue. Beatriz Elena Arias López, Berit Bliesemann de Guevara, and Berena Torres Marín reflect on textile initiatives undertaken by peace signatories of the former guerrilla group FARC. Mathilda Shepard analyzes the work of the Tejedoras de Mampuján, asking what it means to speak of justice, reparations, and reconciliation in the wake of the plantation. Danielle House reflects on Mexican embroidery. She considers violence in Mexico and the way the victims it consumes have been framed as “ungrievable.” Mónica Salazar discusses symbolic resistance in participatory needlework projects about the US-Mexico border. Dillon writes about Chilean arpilleras and Colombian testimonial textiles. She draws parallels among the different artistic practices discussed in the collected essays, tracing the emergence of a supranational artistic movement that generates meaning through a multiplicity of practices. The Dialogues demonstrate the new signifying processes that these needlework groups use, as well as the way they articulate meanings that extend beyond the stitches and semiotics of their clothwork.

Reimagining the Borderland

In these Dialogues, Lorna Dillon brings together essays that explore the relationship between fiber art and social justice in Latin America. The authors discuss Chilean arpilleras, needlework projects and the struggle for peace in Colombia, the Mexican Embroidering for Peace Movement, and Margarita Cabrera’s fabric sculptures about the US-Mexico borderlands. The section brings the work of scholars from different regions into dialogue. Beatriz Elena Arias López, Berit Bliesemann de Guevara, and Berena Torres Marín reflect on textile initiatives undertaken by peace signatories of the former guerrilla group FARC. Mathilda Shepard analyzes the work of the Tejedoras de Mampuján, asking what it means to speak of justice, reparations, and reconciliation in the wake of the plantation. Danielle House reflects on Mexican embroidery. She considers violence in Mexico and the way the victims it consumes have been framed as “ungrievable.” Mónica Salazar discusses symbolic resistance in participatory needlework projects about the US-Mexico border. Dillon writes about Chilean arpilleras and Colombian testimonial textiles. She draws parallels among the different artistic practices discussed in the collected essays, tracing the emergence of a supranational artistic movement that generates meaning through a multiplicity of practices. The Dialogues demonstrate the new signifying processes that these needlework groups use, as well as the way they articulate meanings that extend beyond the stitches and semiotics of their clothwork.

Textiles para la paz en el posacuerdo en Colombia

In these Dialogues, Lorna Dillon brings together essays that explore the relationship between fiber art and social justice in Latin America. The authors discuss Chilean arpilleras, needlework projects and the struggle for peace in Colombia, the Mexican Embroidering for Peace Movement, and Margarita Cabrera’s fabric sculptures about the US-Mexico borderlands. The section brings the work of scholars from different regions into dialogue. Beatriz Elena Arias López, Berit Bliesemann de Guevara, and Berena Torres Marín reflect on textile initiatives undertaken by peace signatories of the former guerrilla group FARC. Mathilda Shepard analyzes the work of the Tejedoras de Mampuján, asking what it means to speak of justice, reparations, and reconciliation in the wake of the plantation. Danielle House reflects on Mexican embroidery. She considers violence in Mexico and the way the victims it consumes have been framed as “ungrievable.” Mónica Salazar discusses symbolic resistance in participatory needlework projects about the US-Mexico border. Dillon writes about Chilean arpilleras and Colombian testimonial textiles. She draws parallels among the different artistic practices discussed in the collected essays, tracing the emergence of a supranational artistic movement that generates meaning through a multiplicity of practices. The Dialogues demonstrate the new signifying processes that these needlework groups use, as well as the way they articulate meanings that extend beyond the stitches and semiotics of their clothwork.

Effect of secondary treatment at the South Bay Ocean Outfall (SBOO) on microbial ocean water quality near the US-Mexico border.

In this study, density plume visualizations and statistical comparisons were made of enterococci bacteria (the main marine recreational microbial water quality indicator) densities, both before and after the upgrade of the discharge from the South Bay Ocean Outfall (SBOO) to secondary treatment level, so that the effect of this upgrade on ocean microbial water quality could be assessed. During the dry weather (bathing) season, reduction in enterococci densities was rather limited with only 2 shore stations and one kelp station showing significant reductions, and none showing increased compliance frequency. During the wet weather season, although the signature of land-based sources of bacterial pollution were evident, a majority of both shore (7 of the 11 stations) and kelp (4 of the 7 stations) stations showed statistically significant (p≤0.05) reductions enterococci densities pointing to the role of the upgrade to secondary treatment in improving microbial water quality.

Bordando por la paz y la memoria

In these Dialogues, Lorna Dillon brings together essays that explore the relationship between fiber art and social justice in Latin America. The authors discuss Chilean arpilleras, needlework projects and the struggle for peace in Colombia, the Mexican Embroidering for Peace Movement, and Margarita Cabrera’s fabric sculptures about the US-Mexico borderlands. The section brings the work of scholars from different regions into dialogue. Beatriz Elena Arias López, Berit Bliesemann de Guevara, and Berena Torres Marín reflect on textile initiatives undertaken by peace signatories of the former guerrilla group FARC. Mathilda Shepard analyzes the work of the Tejedoras de Mampuján, asking what it means to speak of justice, reparations, and reconciliation in the wake of the plantation. Danielle House reflects on Mexican embroidery. She considers violence in Mexico and the way the victims it consumes have been framed as “ungrievable.” Mónica Salazar discusses symbolic resistance in participatory needlework projects about the US-Mexico border. Dillon writes about Chilean arpilleras and Colombian testimonial textiles. She draws parallels among the different artistic practices discussed in the collected essays, tracing the emergence of a supranational artistic movement that generates meaning through a multiplicity of practices. The Dialogues demonstrate the new signifying processes that these needlework groups use, as well as the way they articulate meanings that extend beyond the stitches and semiotics of their clothwork.

Foro: The Civil Rights in Black and Brown Project

In a February 2022 discussion, Stephen Pitti—the director of the Yale Center for the Study of Race, Indigeneity, and Transnational Migration—and the historian Max Krochmal led a conversation with a group of oral historians to discuss practices of Latinx oral history research. The historians, Katherine Bynum, Sandra Enríquez, and Joel Zapata, share their insights on the Civil Rights in Black and Brown Oral History Project and the anthology book that arose from the project. They discuss fieldwork they conducted for the project in East Texas, the High Plains, and along the US-Mexico border, before turning to introductions of their monographs in progress and new and emerging oral history projects in Arizona, Missouri, and Oregon. The conversation further explores the challenges and opportunities of Latinx oral historical practice, including ethical considerations and teaching, as well as the project’s innovative digital humanities website.

Embroidery in Abya Yala

In these Dialogues, Lorna Dillon brings together essays that explore the relationship between fiber art and social justice in Latin America. The authors discuss Chilean arpilleras, needlework projects and the struggle for peace in Colombia, the Mexican Embroidering for Peace Movement, and Margarita Cabrera’s fabric sculptures about the US-Mexico borderlands. The section brings the work of scholars from different regions into dialogue. Beatriz Elena Arias López, Berit Bliesemann de Guevara, and Berena Torres Marín reflect on textile initiatives undertaken by peace signatories of the former guerrilla group FARC. Mathilda Shepard analyzes the work of the Tejedoras de Mampuján, asking what it means to speak of justice, reparations, and reconciliation in the wake of the plantation. Danielle House reflects on Mexican embroidery. She considers violence in Mexico and the way the victims it consumes have been framed as “ungrievable.” Mónica Salazar discusses symbolic resistance in participatory needlework projects about the US-Mexico border. Dillon writes about Chilean arpilleras and Colombian testimonial textiles. She draws parallels among the different artistic practices discussed in the collected essays, tracing the emergence of a supranational artistic movement that generates meaning through a multiplicity of practices. The Dialogues demonstrate the new signifying processes that these needlework groups use, as well as the way they articulate meanings that extend beyond the stitches and semiotics of their clothwork.

Introduction to the Dialogues on Repairing the Fabric of Society through Needlework

In these Dialogues, Lorna Dillon brings together essays that explore the relationship between fiber art and social justice in Latin America. The authors discuss Chilean arpilleras, needlework projects and the struggle for peace in Colombia, the Mexican Embroidering for Peace Movement, and Margarita Cabrera’s fabric sculptures about the US-Mexico borderlands. The section brings the work of scholars from different regions into dialogue. Beatriz Elena Arias López, Berit Bliesemann de Guevara, and Berena Torres Marín reflect on textile initiatives undertaken by peace signatories of the former guerrilla group FARC. Mathilda Shepard analyzes the work of the Tejedoras de Mampuján, asking what it means to speak of justice, reparations, and reconciliation in the wake of the plantation. Danielle House reflects on Mexican embroidery. She considers violence in Mexico and the way the victims it consumes have been framed as “ungrievable.” Mónica Salazar discusses symbolic resistance in participatory needlework projects about the US-Mexico border. Dillon writes about Chilean arpilleras and Colombian testimonial textiles. She draws parallels among the different artistic practices discussed in the collected essays, tracing the emergence of a supranational artistic movement that generates meaning through a multiplicity of practices. The Dialogues demonstrate the new signifying processes that these needlework groups use, as well as the way they articulate meanings that extend beyond the stitches and semiotics of their clothwork.

A Mixed Methods Social Network Analysis of San Diego Law Enforcement Task Forces and Agencies

The San Diego area has a long reputation as a highly networked, cooperative, and task force-oriented law enforcement region. Measuring and understanding how this region achieves its networked state could assist other regions in improving law enforcement functions. This article uses social network analysis to qualitatively and quantitatively map the network of law enforcement agency task forces in the San Diego County region. The analysis first provides an inventory and description of San Diego area law enforcement task forces and participating agencies, then analyzes the structure of the regional network. The analysis identified 33 law enforcement investigative task forces supported by 84 law enforcement and participating agencies in the San Diego area. These comprise a relatively dense network with a well-connected core of primarily federal and local agencies, with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Drug Enforcement Administration, and Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Homeland Security Investigations being the most central federal agencies, and the San Diego County District Attorney’s Office and Sheriff’s Department, as well as San Diego, National City, and Chula Vista police departments as the most central local agencies. State agencies were less central but included the California Department of Justice and the California Highway Patrol in the top 10 agencies for centrality, depending on the metric. The network mapping in this article provides a baseline for a highly connected task force region that will allow future comparison with other regions and similarly situated cities along the US-Mexico border and beyond. Policy recommendations based on network theory are provided.

Community Science Reveals High Diversity of Nectaring Plants Visited by Painted Lady Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) in California Sage Scrub.

California's sage scrub habitats support a diversity of nectar and host plants for migrating and resident populations of painted lady butterflies (Vanessa cardui) throughout all seasons. North America experiences spring V. cardui migrations involving butterflies totaling in the millions in some years. These irruptive years are thought to be driven by winter weather patterns at breeding grounds near the US-Mexico border and due to their irregularity, it is difficult to study floral resource use along the migration route. Here we used the community science platform iNaturalist to quantify patterns in V. cardui nectar resource use in sage scrub over time and space during irruptive and nonirruptive years. We identified over 329 different nectaring plant species of varying functional types (72% native to California) visited by adult V. cardui, 195 of which had not been previously identified as known nectar plants for V. cardui. Vanessa cardui butterflies were observed in similar locations regardless of whether an irruptive migration occurred, indicating the presence of either sparse migrants or resident populations across California. Moreover, irruptive years were positively correlated with warmer and wetter local conditions at observation locations. Our results provide new insights into patterns of floral resource use by North American V. cardui by harnessing the power of community science data and while highlighting the factors associated with its North American migration.

Early effects of COVID-19 on physical activity and screen time use among elementary school students in Columbus, New Mexico.

Adherence to national physical activity guidelines among youth ages 6-11 in the United States is low. The emergence of COVID-19 and the public health measures implemented in response may have decreased children’s physical activity even further. We conducted an online survey among parents of students attending Columbus Elementary School in Columbus, New Mexico, a rural community on the US-Mexico border, to assess changes in children’s physical activity and screen time use from summer 2019 to summer 2020. We also sought to identify important covariates. All parents (N = 55) and children (N = 87) identified as Hispanic; most parents were born in Mexico, while most children were born in the United States. Most parents (79.3%) reported a decrease in their children’s physical activity from 2019 to 2020, and the vast majority of these parents reported that the changes were due to COVID-19 home confinement. The mean number of days children were physically active for >60 minutes significantly decreased, while daily screen time use increased. Having parents born in Mexico, infrequent family meals (<3/week), and not having community spaces for physical activity close by protected children from decreases in their level of physical activity from 2019 to 2020. Home-based exercise may serve as a suitable method of physical activity when public health responses to COVID-19 restrict community spaces. Future interventions should also be mindful of the role that parental nativity and related cultural factors may play in children’s physical activity levels.

Examining Pre- and Post-Pandemic Cross-Border Trips Using Crowdsourced Data at the Second-Busiest US-Mexico Border Community

The US-Mexico border witnesses frequent cross-border travels for educational, recreational, healthcare, and work purposes, with millions of passenger and commercial vehicles crossing the international border each year. In 2020, pandemic-related travel restrictions were applied to non-US citizens at the US-Mexico border and reshaped cross-border trips. Using crowdsourced data, we explored the mobility changes that the COVID-19 pandemic brought to the second-busiest border region between the United States and Mexico. Results showed that although some patterns remained similar, overall mobility decreased significantly.