This article examines how integrating generative artificial intelligence (AI) with case-based learning (CBL) can strengthen pre-service EFL teacher education by addressing three persistent constraints: scarce access to ready-to-use case materials, limited linguistic accessibility of authentic texts, and the high workload required to design cognitively demanding cases. Drawing on recent scholarship on AI-supported language learning, technology-mediated task-based instruction, and gamification, the study adopts a qualitative, design-based approach that translates literature-derived principles into concrete design requirements. Three AI-powered CBL prototypes are presented as design cases and aligned with task-based language teaching (TBLT) principles of authenticity, purposeful interaction, feedback-rich practice, and structured reflection. The first application demonstrates how AI-enabled simplification, glossing, and multimodal support can scaffold learners’ comprehension of authentic media texts while preserving analytical depth, thereby supporting media literacy and critical language awareness. The second prototype uses conversational AI as an on-demand interlocutor in a professional negotiation scenario, enabling iterative practice of persuasive communication and evidence-based argumentation under flexible, asynchronous conditions. The third application illustrates how AI-generated branching narratives can gamify case work into choice-driven simulations, increasing engagement and providing repeated exposure to target language in meaningful decision-making contexts; post-task reflection prompts are used to promote metalinguistic awareness and critical digital literacy. The article emphasizes responsible implementation, highlighting risks related to hallucination, bias, and data privacy, and argues that teacher education should explicitly train future educators to evaluate, edit, and justify AI-assisted materials. While the study is illustrative rather than evaluative, it outlines a practical pathway for democratizing access to sophisticated CBL designs and proposes directions for future empirical, longitudinal, and cross-context research to assess learning outcomes and professional transfer.

Abstract. This study examines the role of translation in foreign language teaching, exploring its benefits and limitations within modern pedagogical contexts. Translation can enhance comprehension, reinforce vocabulary, and promote metalinguistic awareness when used strategically. However, excessive reliance may impede communicative fluency and spontaneous language use. Effective language instruction integrates translation with interactive and communicative activities, ensuring a balance between analytical reflection and practical application. The study highlights translation as a flexible, context-dependent tool that supports holistic language development.

In this article, I underscore the value of nuanced, speaker-focused approaches to dialect contact, which both complement and extend community-based perspectives. I pursue this goal through two main strategies. First, I use a mixed-methods approach that integrates diverse sources of contextualized conversational data alongside spontaneous metalinguistic commentary. This broadens the traditional reliance on one-on-one sociolinguistic interviews, in which the regional backgrounds of both interviewees and interviewers are often left uncontrolled. Second, I use an interpretative framework that accounts for individuals’ metalinguistic awareness and examines how this awareness influences their positioning within distinct membership categories. Such positioning is evident in language practices, ranging from accommodation to interlocutors’ speech patterns to the retention of regional variation patterns. The analysis centers on the speech of five individuals in a Spanish dialect contact setting in Anglo-America, using their linguistic behavior as a lens to address broader theoretical and methodological questions in the field.

This article examines the emerging convergence between translanguaging pedagogy and Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education. Drawing on sociocultural theory, the paper argues that Large Language Models (LLMs) function as powerful mediating tools that support multilingual learners through adaptive input, situational intelligence, and mixed-language interaction. These capabilities enable students to mobilize their full linguistic repertoires, fostering deeper comprehension, metalinguistic awareness, and the development of plurilingual proficiency. The study highlights how AI-driven translanguaging can enhance equity, motivation, and cognitive engagement while offering new pathways for personalized scaffolding and reflective learning. At the same time, it critically addresses systemic challenges, including algorithmic bias, the under-representation of low-resource languages, and tensions between standardized AI output and the creative, fluid nature of translanguaging. The paper concludes with recommendations for responsible integration, professional development, and future research aimed at capturing dynamic, plurilingual growth in AI-mediated classrooms.

Parental reports have been shown to be an informative, cost-effective, and non-invasive method of assessing children’s early communicative and language development (up to the age of 3 years). However, less is known about their applicability in older preschool children after the age of three. The main aim of this study was to present the validation process of the Slovenian version of the Communicative Development Inventories (CDI-III), which is based on the Swedish and Croatian versions. The study was conducted on a sample of 337 parents whose children were aged between 2;6 and 4;0. The results indicate a significant intercorrelation between all subsections of the scale and a clear trend of progress related to age. Among the demographic factors, mother’s education was found to have a significant influence on children’s scores on the Grammar and Metalinguistic Awareness subscales. Gender and the presence of siblings did not appear to be a significant factor. In addition, scores on the language subscales (Vocabulary, Grammar, Metalinguistic Awareness) correlated significantly with scores in the Comprehension and Production Scales of the New Reynell Developmental Language Scale . The study confirms that the Slovenian version of the CDI-III is a valid and psychometrically suitable instrument for further research into language development in Slovenian.

Language learning is not merely a cognitive process; it is an emotional and psychological journey shaped by confidence, vulnerability, and mindset. This study explores key psychological barriers—including anxiety, fear of judgment, perfectionism, and cognitive fatigue—that hinder learners' progress and presents strategies to foster a growth-oriented approach. Drawing on qualitative data from language learners, the findings revealed that high-stakes environments, excessive teacher correction, and an overemphasis on accuracy often suppress fluency and self-expression. In contrast, adopting mistake-tolerant practices—such as gamified risk-taking and reframing errors as valuable achievements—can foster a more supportive and growth-oriented learning environment. These strategies not only normalize error-making but also enhance metalinguistic awareness, promote intrinsic motivation, and support long-term retention. Additionally, the study identifies specific emotional and social stressors—such as internalized negative self-talk, method paralysis, and unrealistic goal-setting—that contribute to mental blocks and disengagement. To address these barriers, this research advocates for a paradigm shift in TESOL education—one that integrates psychological support, emotional safety, and growth mindset principles into instructional design. A model TESOL syllabus and ten strategies for promoting mistake tolerance are proposed, incorporating reflective practices, low-pressure speaking tasks, and self-directed error analysis. By reframing mistakes as necessary steps in learning and building environments that empower students to take linguistic risks, educators can cultivate both communicative confidence and emotional resilience.

The overlapping constructs of metalinguistic awareness and language learning aptitude act as predictors of attainment in instructional settings. Given the scarce input that young learners of English as a Foreign Language receive during their lessons, targeting the development of these two abilities seems like a wise choice for making the most of young learners’ limited instruction time. In the following study, 35 L1 Spanish 10-to-12-year-olds were divided into a treatment and a control group. We created an instructional sequence using explicit metalinguistic explanations that focused on two target features. As metalinguistic knowledge is a prerequisite for the development of metalinguistic awareness, it was expected that these metalinguistic explanations would have a positive effect on the treatment group learners’ scores in an awareness and an aptitude test. Using a pre-test/post-test design, the students completed the metalinguistic awareness and aptitude tests and a dictogloss text reconstruction task. The treatment group engaged with the intervention between the pre-test and the post-test stages. Results show significant differences between both groups: we found positive effects of the metalinguistic explanations on metalinguistic awareness, the language-analytic ability subcomponent of aptitude and target feature accuracy. Both theoretical and pedagogical implications derived from these findings will be discussed.

This qualitative study investigates the patterns and underlying factors of code-mixing (CM) among Indonesian youths in Aaron's English-Speaking Club, a community dedicated to practicing English in Medan, Indonesia. Employing a grounded theory approach by Charmaz (2016), the research involved in-depth interviews with ten club members, selected via probability sampling. The conversations were analyzed to quantify the frequency of CM (the insertion of Indonesian words into English discourse) and to identify the sociolinguistic factors influencing this phenomenon using the framework of Holmes (1992). Findings reveal that all participants engaged in CM, with percentages ranging from 0.52% to 24.34% of their total words. The analysis indicates that CM is not an indicator of low proficiency but a strategic, communicative resource. Key factors influencing CM included occupation, cultural attitude, and regional background. Notably, participants were initially unaware of the linguistic concepts of CM and code-switching (CS), but upon explanation, all identified more strongly with CM than CS in their typical language use. The study concludes that CM is a natural and prevalent feature of bilingual communication among these youths, reflecting their dynamic linguistic identity and the specific social context of their English practice community. It recommends increased metalinguistic awareness to empower speakers in their bilingual journey.

This article reports the first meta-analytic Structural Equation Modeling study that examined the within- and cross-language relations of three metalinguistic awareness skills (orthographic, phonological, and morphological awareness, or OA, PA, and MA) with word reading among school-aged dual language learners (DLLs) of English. Based on 156 primary studies (N = 23,371), we found that (1) OA, PA, and MA each uniquely predicted word reading within first language (L1) and second language (L2); (2) L1 OA, PA, and MA predicted their corresponding skill in L2, showing a construct-level transfer facilitation effect; (3) for cross-over transfer, L1 PA, as opposed to L1 OA and MA, predicted L2 word reading, but their indirect effects on L2 word reading were all significant. Moderator analysis was conducted on L1 background (Chinese vs. non-Chinese); L2 learning context (ESL vs. EFL); and developmental stage (younger vs. older). We discuss the transfer facilitation effects of L1 metalinguistic awareness skills that can be leveraged for effective and differentiated instruction for DLLs.

This study investigates how the LitEscape Challenge, a gamified literary escape-room activity, enhances ESL students' understanding of key narrative elements, such as plot, character, setting, theme, conflict, and moral values, while simultaneously promoting a deeper engagement with the linguistic structures found in literary texts. The activity was conceptualized to provide a problem-based learning environment where students work collaboratively to progress through stages by decoding the literary clues. Grounded in behaviourist, constructivist, and engagement theories, the intervention was carried out over four weeks with 30 Form 5 students in Malaysia. Utilising a quasi-experimental, mixed-methods design, learning outcomes were assessed through pre- and post-tests, supplemented by a thematic analysis of reflective writing. The results reveal significant improvements in literary comprehension (p < 0.001, d = 2.25), indicating a large effect size. Qualitative evidence further revealed an increase in learners' motivation, collaboration, critical thinking and heightened the metalinguistic awareness through active problem-solving, peer interaction and reflective engagement with the literary text. These findings suggest that when gamification is thoughtfully designed around linguistic objectives and narrative structures, it can improve both aesthetic appreciation and language competence in ESL literature instruction. This study presents practical implications for ESL teachers by offering a replicable, low-technology, game-based model that incorporates language-focused pedagogy to support meaningful, engaging and skill-oriented literature instruction.

This study investigates the types and sources of grammatical errors found in English essays written by students of Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata (STP) Mataram. Given the contrastive structures between Indonesian (first language) and English (target language), language transfer and interlanguage phenomena are examined as contributing factors. Using a descriptive case study approach, data were collected from 90 student essays, supported by questionnaires and interviews. The analysis identified four primary types of grammatical errors: omission (40 percent), misordering (35 percent), overgeneralization (15 percent), and misinformation (10 percent), with omission emerging as the most frequent. Findings indicate that students often translate directly from Indonesian, leading to syntactic inaccuracies and structural deviations in English. Additionally, several errors reflect interlanguage development, wherein students produce forms that align with neither Indonesian nor standard English. These linguistic patterns highlight the need for targeted pedagogical interventions in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) instruction, especially in tourism and hospitality education, where effective written communication is essential. The study underscores the importance of raising students' metalinguistic awareness and integrating contrastive analysis into curriculum design to mitigate persistent grammatical errors.

Social media connects users in virtual spaces and offers a valuable avenue for language learning due to its interactive features and wide accessibility. It encourages active language use and supports learning beyond the classroom environment. While its integration into language education presents significant opportunities, it also poses notable challenges. This reviews the instructional potential and platforms of four: microblog (e.g., Twitter), collaborative wikis (e.g., Wikipedia), professional networks (e.g., LinkedIn), and informational networks. It also examines the infrastructure and resource conditions necessary to support effective classroom integration. This paper argues that the meaningful and well-structured incorporation of social media into the curriculum can lead to sustainable language learning outcomes. Drawing on the concept of social media as a deus technique, a dialogic medium, and the literacy model that views language as a socially situated practice, outlining strategies for using social media to foster both communicative competence and metalinguistic awareness. The practices include designing learners-centered, interactive activities, addressing data privacy concerns, and ensuring equitable digital access. Institutions are suggested to provide training focused on effective social media integration. As future research includes exploring AI-enhanced personalized learning, self-regulated learning through social platforms, and examining the long-term effects of social media use on language development, particularly in diverse educational settings.

Systematic and rigorous approaches are necessary to fully understand GenAI’s (Generative AI’s) impact on L2 English/EFL (English as a Foreign Language) academic writing in higher education. In this scope, postgraduate EFL writing has been explored little. The present qualitative study examines this topic within Social Sciences at the University of Extremadura, Spain, where seven participants with a B2 English level or higher enrolled in a 10-h hybrid course about GenAI for academic English writing in October and November of 2024, focusing on AI tools and Broad Data-Driven Learning (BDDL) resources (e.g., simple online corpora tools) to assist their writing. Participants’ feedback was collected by qualitative means (in-class discussions, task writing annotation, and final survey). Overall findings indicate notably positive responses and usage of these tools for the improvement of their texts (e.g., linguistic analysis, lexical-grammatical refinement, and text style improvement). Participants’ activities also showcase miscellaneous approaches and strategies in their management of GenAI. Despite the study’s small sample, these preliminary findings reveal that these postgraduate EFL writers can exploit expert and linguistic knowledge effectively using GenAI, demonstrating meta-linguistic awareness and digital literacy-related skills.

ABSTRACT This study examined how Grade 4 ESL teachers in Namibian primary schools employ translanguaging strategies to enhance reading comprehension among multilingual learners. Grounded in translanguaging theory, schema theory, and reflective practice, the research highlights the intentional integration of learners’ mother tongues (e.g. Oshindonga) with English to scaffold understanding, foster metalinguistic awareness, and affirm linguistic identities. Using a qualitative case study design, the study engaged five teachers through classroom observations, interviews, and document analysis. Key findings reveal dynamic strategies such as multimodal code-switching, lingua receptiva (flexible language responses), and peer-mediated language brokering, which collectively create inclusive and cognitively enriching learning environments. These practices challenge monolingual ideologies in ESL instruction, demonstrating that using learners’ full linguistic repertoires enhances comprehension and academic confidence. The study also identifies tensions between teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and policy constraints, underscoring the need for systemic support. Implications include advocating for flexible bilingual pedagogies in teacher training and language policy reform, particularly in transitional educational contexts like Namibia, where abrupt shifts to English-medium instruction often hinder literacy development. By centering teachers’ adaptive practices, this research contributes to broader discussions on equitable, context-sensitive approaches to multilingual education in postcolonial settings.

Metalinguistic awareness (MLA) refers to the ability to reflect on formal aspects of language. MLA typically begins to develop at a young age, likely through an interplay of cognitive maturation, L1 acquisition, and literacy acquisition. Adult emergent readers, however, improve literacy skills in adulthood, which has implications for MLA development. This scoping review investigated what metalinguistic abilities adult emergent readers possess and how MLA has been measured. We also examined the evidence for a relation between MLA and L2 language learning in this population, as L2 language learning may be conditional to MLA. To answer these questions, we systematically searched for empirical studies that investigated MLA in adult emergent readers. This search yielded 38 studies that were annotated for performance on MLA tasks. Results show that adults with higher literacy levels are better able to reflect on formal linguistic aspects. Importantly, the reviewed studies predominantly focused on phonological and lexical awareness, using quite abstract tasks. Moreover, only two studies investigated the relation between MLA and L2 proficiency. We propose that studies could use a wider range of designs to measure MLA in this population and we point out the need to investigate the relation between MLA and L2 language learning.

Research comparing different teaching approaches with older adult participants is still in short supply. Moreover, there is no existing work on how older adults utilise their metalinguistic awareness in the context of different instructional conditions. We compared a monolingual and a multilingual approach to the teaching and learning of beginner-level Italian in speakers of German and English (N = 50) who participated in a tailor-made 10-week online course. Participants were pre- and post-tested for Italian knowledge and metalinguistic awareness, and demographic background information was gathered. Here we present results from a sub-sample of ten participants (ages 62–69) who provided think-aloud and stimulated recall protocols while resolving a set of second language (L2) tasks comprising grammar, reading comprehension, and translation exercises, and who reported their thoughts about their language learning experience during semi-structured interviews. Through triangulation of complementary evidence from participants’ actual performance and their reflections on that performance, our findings demonstrate that learners activated their meta- and crosslinguistic knowledge effectively by drawing on their multilingual reservoirs regardless of teaching approach. Metalinguistic awareness appears to partially determine strategy use and thereby facilitate subsequent learning of the L2. Bisher gibt es kaum Studien, die den Fremdsprachenerwerb von älteren Erwachsenen im Kontext von unterschiedlichen Unterrichtsmethoden vergleichen. Zudem hat sich noch keine Studie der Frage gewidmet, wie ältere Erwachsene ihr Sprachbewusstsein in unterschiedlich gestalteten Fremdsprachenunterrichtseinheiten einsetzen. In unserer Studie vergleichen wir einen einsprachigen mit einem mehrsprachigen Ansatz in einem zehnwöchigen Online-Italienischkurs für Anfänger mit 50 deutsch- und englischsprachigen Teilnehmerinnen und Teilnehmern. Italienischkenntnisse und Sprachbewusstsein wurden vor und nach dem Kurs getestet und demographische Daten wurden erhoben. In diesem Artikel präsentieren wir die Ergebnisse von zehn Teilnehmerinnen und Teilnehmern im Alter von 62 bis 69 Jahren, die ihre Lösungen zu Grammatikaufgaben in der Zielsprache, Leseverstehen und Übersetzungsaufgaben erklären und von ihren Erfahrungen während des Italienischkurses berichten. Wir analysieren die Erfahrungen und Gedankengänge der älteren Erwachsenen in Kombination mit ihren jeweiligen Testergebnissen. Unsere Studie zeigt, dass die Lernenden unabhängig vom Unterrichtsansatz ihr Sprachbewusstsein gezielt aktivieren, sprachliche Vergleiche durchführen und auf ihr mehrsprachiges Wissen zurückgreifen. Sprachbewusstsein führt zu strategisch effektivem Verhalten und kann dadurch das Erlernen einer weiteren Sprache fördern.

ABSTRACT Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) is a psychological barrier that hinders learners’ ability to acquire and use a new language effectively. While previous studies have explored the role of language learning strategies (LLS) in alleviating FLA, little is known about how plurilingual and pluricultural competence (PPC) influences this relationship. This study examines the contribution of LLS to FLA and investigates whether PPC moderates or mediates this relationship. A total of 143 participants completed validated measures assessing FLA, PPC, and LLS. Multiple regression analyses revealed that cognitive strategies negatively predicted FLA, while affective and compensation strategies were associated with increased anxiety. Further, PPC components, particularly plurilingual cognition and intercultural tolerance, systematically reduced FLA. Moderation analyses demonstrated that PPC amplified the effects of LLS, with plurilingual cognition reinforcing anxiety reduction when paired with cognitive strategies but increasing evaluation sensitivity when combined with affective strategies. Mediation analyses showed that plurilingual cognition mediated the relationships between cognitive, social, and metacognitive strategies and FLA, suggesting that cognitive flexibility and metalinguistic awareness play a crucial role in anxiety regulation. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating the development of PPC into language education to foster adaptive learning strategies and enhance learners’ confidence in multilingual environments.

Understanding subject-specific texts requires interpreting representations—words, symbols, and images—in their intended senses. Many such representations are ambiguous, with meanings that shift depending on context and disciplinary conventions. This applies not only to words, for example, ‘paper’ in everyday versus academic usage, but also to symbols and images, like ‘–’, that must be interpreted in different senses depending on context. This article introduces the IRIS model (Interpreting Representations in their Intended Senses), a theoretical framework designed to capture the interpretative processes readers engage in when navigating subject language. Unlike existing models that focus primarily on vocabulary, IRIS encompasses all semiotic resources and foregrounds the discernments needed to resolve ambiguity. Analytically, it supports text studies by making explicit the interpretative demands posed by subject-specific representations. Pedagogically, it offers a tool for fostering metacognitive and metalinguistic awareness, helping learners and educators reflect on the challenges involved in interpreting subject languages.

ABSTRACT This paper presents a study conducted in an Italian primary school involving 21 students exposed to multilingual pedagogies for 5 years. The multilingual class represents nine languages in addition to Italian and is part of the L’AltRoparlante project, a network of Italian schools engaged in multilingual classroom activities since 2018. The research investigates the strategies these students employ to comprehend stories in a language unfamiliar to all participants and explores peer-to-peer sensemaking. A Conversation Analysis of audio-recorded classroom interactions reveals that students’ sensemaking is collaboratively constructed using various strategies, including mediation, intercomprehension between related languages, and leveraging one’s own prior knowledge of languages. The findings illustrate how each participant draws upon their linguistic resources and knowledge to engage in the sensemaking process, making evident how small-group activities allow children to exert their agency. Furthermore, the results highlight the collaborative nature of the activity, demonstrating the involvement of all students, including newly arrived students with limited proficiency in the language of instruction. Implications from this study underscore the need to explore more dialogic and child-centred activities, where a broad focus on linguistic education enables students to co-construct meaning, develop metalinguistic awareness and allow teachers to effectively manage a multilingual classroom.

This mixed-methods correlational study investigated the relationship between metalinguistic awareness and academic performance among 150 Cebuano-English bilingual college students aged 18–21 from universities in Cebu, Philippines. The study examined how students' awareness and strategic use of multiple languages related to their academic success, particularly in reading comprehension and critical thinking. Data were gathered through metalinguistic awareness assessments, academic records, oral self-introductions, and qualitative interviews. Results revealed that while students showed strong reading comprehension in English, their writing and speaking frequently involved code-switching and language mixing. Statistical analysis indicated a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.42, p < 0.01) between metalinguistic awareness and overall academic performance, with higher awareness associated with more strategic language use and better academic out-comes across subjects. However, code-switching during formal writing and speaking negatively influenced comprehension scores in English-only assessments. Qualitative findings further showed that students with higher metalinguistic awareness could articulate reasons for their code-switching but continued to struggle with maintaining strict language separation in academic contexts. Notably, 73% of participants displayed balanced bilingual profiles, yet their comprehension declined when natural code-switching tendencies were restricted. These findings suggest that while metalinguistic awareness provides cognitive advantages for bilingual students, institutional expectations of monolingual performance may conflict with natural multilingual processing. The study highlights the importance of pedagogical approaches that recognize and leverage multilingual competencies, offering implications for curriculum design and assessment practices in Philippine higher education and other multilingual learning environments.