There is strong and diverse evidence for mental rotation (MR) abilities in adults. However, current evidence for MR in children rests on just a few behavioral paradigms adapted from the adult literature. Here, we leverage recent computational models of the development of children's object recognition abilities to re-assess the evidence for MR in children. The computational models simulate infants' acquisition of object representations during embodied interactions with objects. We consider two different object recognition strategies, different from MRs, and assess their ability to replicate results from three classical MR tasks assigned to children between the ages of 6 months and 5 years. Our results show that MR may play no role in producing the results obtained from children younger than 5 years. In fact, we find that a simple recognition strategy that reflects a pixel-wise comparison of stimuli is sufficient to model children's behavior in the most used MR task. Thus, our study reopens the debate on how and when children develop genuine MRabilities. SUMMARY: We use a bio-inspired machine learning models to examine evidence of mental rotation abilities in children We show that a simple recognition strategy suffices to solve habituation-based tasks used to assess mental rotations in young children. We demonstrate that a model forming expectations about a rotation transformation can explain children's results in mental rotation tasks with the violation-of-expectation paradigm. The investigated recognition strategies no longer work when the mental rotation tasks are made closer to adults'.

This study aimed to examine autonomic nervous system responses during motor imagery (MI) in healthy adults, using different autonomic markers that reflect cardiac vagal activity and electrodermal activity. 24 healthy individuals were included in this study. Demographic data were assessed using a demographic data form, and MI ability was assessed using mental chronometry, mental rotation, and the Kinesthetic and Visual Imagery Questionnaire (KVIQ-20). Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), and electrodermal activity (EDA) were recorded during each 5-min relaxation and MI sessions. HR and HRV were measured using a Polar H10 device, while EDA was measured using the BIOPAC MP36 system. During MI, decreased HRV parameters reflecting cardiac vagal activity, such as Root Mean Square of Successive Differences (RMSSD) and high frequency (HF) band power, were observed (p < 0.05 for all). In addition, significant increase was found in EDA values reflecting electrodermal activity during MI (p < 0.001). Residualized HR was strongly positively correlated with KVIQ-Visual scores (r = 0.511), moderately positively correlated with KVIQ-Total (r = 0.497) and Left-hand accuracy (r = 0.441) scores, while a moderately negative correlation was found between residualized HR and Left-hand reaction time (r = -0.466) (p < 0.05 for all). In conclusion, when assessing MI sessions and MI ability, it is important to use different autonomic indicators (e.g., HRV and EDA) together. The findings suggest that autonomous responses observed during MI may reflect different physiological mechanisms, offering significant implications for the potential use of autonomous biomarkers in MI-based rehabilitation interventions.

Dual Neural Foundations of Coding Cognition: Language Comprehension Scaffolds Initial Learning Before Mathematical Systems Engage.

This study applied Rasch modeling to examine the psychometric properties of two spatial assessments, the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and Object Assembly (OA), and used group comparisons to explore demographic patterns across the MRT, OA, and Surface Development (SD). Participants were 123 students in Grades 3-8 recruited from university-affiliated summer programs. For the MRT and OA, most items showed acceptable model-data fit, with infit mean square values generally within the expected range of 0.70 to 1.30, although a small number of items displayed evidence of underfit or overfit. Wright maps indicated generally appropriate alignment between item difficulty and participant ability, supporting the usefulness of these measures for distinguishing low-to-moderate levels of spatial skill. Group comparisons based on Rasch-derived theta estimates showed a substantial overlap across gender and race groups on the MRT and OA, with small and non-significant differences. SD raw-score comparisons showed similarly modest subgroup differences. To evaluate measurement invariance at the item level, separate Rasch tree analyses were conducted for the MRT and OA using gender and race as potential splitting variables. Methodologically, the study contributes by combining Rasch-based evaluation of item functioning with exploratory subgroup visualization to examine how spatial assessment performance may vary across demographic groups while maintaining consistency with the psychometric assumptions of the model. Overall, the findings support the value of Rasch-based methods for evaluating the measurement quality of spatial assessments and demonstrate that limited mean group differences at the overall score level can coexist with meaningful item-level noninvariance.

Object-location memory (OLM) is the ability to encode and retrieve spatial relationships between objects by using egocentric or allocentric reference frames. Critically, OLM is modulated by emotional memory systems that engage amygdala-hippocampal and arousal-related mechanisms that can bias or disrupt spatial encoding. Despite evidence that emotion shapes memory, its specific impact on OLM remains unclear, particularly in digital contexts. This systematic review examined how emotional valence, particularly stress and anxiety, modulates OLM performance in computer-based and virtual/augmented reality tasks. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search was conducted in Web of Science, Scopus, PsycInfo, and PubMed. Twelve empirical studies published up to 2025 met the inclusion criteria. Results revealed sex-specific effects: anxious women tended to rely on egocentric strategies, whereas stressed men showed greater allocentric flexibility. The timing of stress exposure was critical, often disrupting encoding but occasionally facilitating retrieval. Emotional valence differentially influenced performance: positive stimuli enhanced spatial accuracy, whereas negative stimuli accelerated response times. Spatial working memory (SWM) and mental rotation emerged as key cognitive resources supporting flexible spatial learning, while physiological stress markers showed only weak associations with behavioral outcomes. Future research should standardize paradigms, explore digital and immersive environments, include diverse populations, and clarify theoretical distinctions among arousal, valence, anxiety, and stress to better understand how emotional states shape spatial memory.

Exploring individual differences in the mental rotation of hands and their links to mental health.

Pupil dilation as a physiological marker of metacognitive processes.

The need to mentally rotate objects is common in everyday activities (e.g., driving, loading suitcases in a car, playing 3D video games) and in specific professions (e.g., air traffic controllers, mechanics, pilots, surgeons). Surprisingly, whether stress facilitates or impairs spatial reasoning in these situations remains an open question. Previous research has shown that spatial performance (e.g. navigation, visuospatial memory, attention) can be influenced by acute stress. However, few studies have investigated the effects of stress on mental rotation and these have produced mixed results. In the present study, we examined the influence of cardiovascular indicators of Sympathetic Adrenal Medulla (SAM) activation from an acute laboratory stressor (Paced Serial Addition Task [PASAT]) on mental rotation performance (MRT Accuracy and Response Time). We assigned young, healthy, volunteer participants (39 men, 41 women; 18-23 years of age) to either a Stress (PASAT) or a Non-Stress (Control) group. All participants completed a Mental Rotation Task (MRT) before (Pretest) and after (Posttest) the PASAT or Control task. Cardiovascular measurements (blood pressure, heart rate) and self-reported affect were obtained to quantify values during a resting state, stress manipulation, MRT Pretest, MRT Posttest, and a Recovery period. The Stress group reported greater negative affect, less positive affect, and had higher systolic blood pressure than our Non-Stress Control group after our stress manipulation, thus demonstrating that our PASAT stressor was effective at increasing cardiovascular indicators of SAM activation. All participants became faster and more accurate from the MRT Pretest to the Posttest demonstrating a practice effect. Men were more accurate than women in MRT, but contrary to expectations, this sex difference did not change with stress induction. Overall, PASAT stress did not have an influence on MRT speed or accuracy. A regression analysis did not find a relationship between self-reported affect, cardiovascular indicators of SAM activation, and MRT performance. Our results suggest that being in the Stress group (PASAT) had no influence on mental rotation performance. Future investigations might confirm this in professions performing specific rotation tasks under pressure and should also investigate the effect of physical stressors or stress-induced hypothalamic-pituitary (HPA) axis activation prior to MRT performance.

In Parkinson’s disease (PD), cognitive symptoms progressively worsen with disease progression and present a major clinical challenge that remains difficult to treat. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN-DBS) is a widely used and clinically validated therapy for motor symptoms in PD; however, its cognitive effects remain underexplored. In this study, we examined how STN-DBS influences executive functioning, focusing on a well-established mental rotation task. In the task, patients were shown two images (reference, comparison) and were asked to decide whether the comparison image was rotated or mirrored. Twelve PD patients (6 women; mean age: 60 ± 10 years; mean disease duration: 12 ± 6 years) completed the task under two conditions: with therapeutic STN-DBS turned on and turned off. Behavioural cognitive performance was correlated with the volume of tissue activated, as determined by MR based electrode reconstruction. Results indicated that STN-DBS significantly improved mental rotation accuracy, suggesting a beneficial effect on visuospatial executive processing. Notably, stimulation involving limbic-associated regions of the right STN was associated with impaired performance, highlighting the relevance of stimulation site and its functional connectivity. Together, these findings contribute to the growing body of evidence that STN-DBS produces region-specific effects on distinct cognitive domains.

A hallmark of human intelligence is the ability to use tools. Yet the cognitive processes supporting this ability remain debated. One contemporary view holds that mechanical reasoning is central for tool use, especially in the case of tools with which we have no prior experience. However, previous support for the role of mechanical reasoning often relies on circular logic, wherein poor performance on novel tool-use tasks is taken as evidence that impaired mechanical reasoning causes tool-use deficits in limb apraxia. To address this limitation, we independently assessed mechanical reasoning and novel tool use in separate tasks in individuals with limb apraxia, and compared their performance to individuals without apraxia. We also examined whether these two abilities are similarly associated with other cognitive abilities including motor imagery, mental rotation of non-body objects, general reasoning, and spatial working memory. Finally, we explored brain-behavior relationships using support vector regression lesion-symptom mapping. Our behavioral and imaging data together showed that mechanical reasoning does not underlie novel tool-use deficits in apraxia. Graphical analysis further revealed that novel tool use and mechanical reasoning loaded onto distinct latent clusters: novel tool use was strongly associated with other praxis abilities yet separable from cognitive abilities that require reasoning and mental simulation, whereas mechanical reasoning was primarily linked to other high-level reasoning abilities but not tool use. These findings challenge the notion that mechanical reasoning is central to tool-use ability, and instead suggest that tool use is more likely to be an intuitive or automatic process.

BackgroundThere is a need for scalable and simple interventions for trauma-exposed people. In this case series, we built on our previous case study and case series findings and further explored the use and potential effectiveness of a brief novel intervention to reduce the number of past intrusive memories of trauma. The imagery competing task intervention consists of a memory reminder and the visuospatial task Tetris played with mental rotation, targeting 1 intrusive memory at a time. Here, we test remote delivery of the intervention, including guidance from researchers without specialist mental health training, in a sample of women in Iceland with current intrusive memories from trauma.ObjectiveIn a case series of trauma-exposed women, we aimed to explore whether this brief novel intervention reduces the number of established intrusive memories (primary outcome) and improves general functioning and symptom reduction in posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety (secondary outcomes). The acceptability of the intervention along with adaptations, that is, delivery by psychology students without specialist mental health training and digital delivery, was explored.MethodsParticipants (N=8) monitored the number of intrusive memories from an index trauma (occurring 3‐16 years previously) in a daily diary at baseline, during the intervention, and postintervention at 1-month and 3-month follow-ups. The intervention was delivered digitally with guidance from clinical psychologists or psychology students. A repeated AB design was used (“A”: preintervention baseline, “B”: intervention phase). Intrusions were targeted one by one, creating repetitions of an AB design (ie, length of baseline “A” and intervention “B” varied for each memory).ResultsThe number of intrusive memories reduced for all participants from the baseline phase compared with the intervention phase, although the reduction was minimal for 2 participants (6.3%‐93%). The number of intrusive memories continued to reduce for 6 out of 8 participants (58%‐100% reduction at 1-month follow-up; 72%‐100% reduction at 3-month follow-up). Symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety were reduced for most participants postintervention and continued to decrease during the follow-up periods. Functioning was improved for 7 of the 8 participants from baseline to postintervention and continued to improve at the follow-up assessments for 3 participants. The intervention delivered digitally and partly by students was perceived to be an acceptable way to reduce the frequency of intrusive memories by all participants (mean rating 9.5 out of 10).ConclusionsData from this case series of traumatized women provide preliminary evidence for the effectiveness of this novel brief intervention in reducing intrusive memories of trauma occurring several years ago and in improving functioning and reducing core symptom burden. This study will inform a randomized controlled trial of this novel intervention, which may have considerable implications for large-scale clinical management of traumatized populations.

Spatial perspective-taking (sPT) contributes to social interactions, allowing individuals to imagine how a scene might appear to others. Traditionally, sPT has been investigated as the ability to take the perspective of others when explicitly instructed to do so. However, more recent findings suggest that, even in the absence of explicit instruction, as in most real-life settings, individuals sometimes take the spatial perspective of others, that is, they engage in spontaneous sPT. To explain why, research has so far focused on context-related features of the visual scene. Here, we focus on individual differences between observers, and how both contextual and person-related factors modulate spontaneous sPT. By developing a novel task, the Do You See What I See (DYSWIS) task, across four studies (N = 603; age range: 18-36 years), we find that some individuals are systematically more likely than others to choose the perspective of others, across different conditions and when tested 2 weeks apart. These individual differences in spontaneous sPT positively correlate with self-reported empathy (in three of four studies) and with sPT ability (only when considering the egocentric interference index) but not with mental rotation or nonverbal reasoning abilities. These associations are also stable across context-related conditions that increase spontaneous sPT, such as the presence of humans or their implied movement. From a theoretical perspective, these results suggest that individual differences in spontaneous sPT might not only be a matter of ability but also a matter of choice, justifying the study of spontaneous sPT as partly independent construct. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Executive functions enable flexible control of behavior by dynamically coordinating perception, memory, and action. Among them, working memory plays a central role by maintaining and transforming information to meet current goals. Here, we examined mental rotation-a core operation that exemplifies these control dynamics-and delineated the role of directed communication in theta and alpha band activity in cortical networks. Replicating the typical behavioral pattern in mental rotation, we showed that high-demand rotations were characterized by decreased theta and increased alpha power, reflecting a functional reallocation from control-intensive monitoring to stabilized maintenance of visual representations. EEG-beamforming localization identified anterior temporal, inferior frontal, and insular regions showing stronger directed information transfer to temporo-parietal and occipito-temporal regions. These findings suggest that mental rotation is associated with frequency-specific, hierarchically organized, directed communication between anterior control-related and posterior representational systems. In this directed communication, theta band dynamics likely coordinate working memory updating and response selection, whereas alpha-band coupling stabilizes mnemonic representations through inhibitory gating. The study suggests that directed theta and alpha dynamics may support the flexible transformation of internal representations in working memory.

Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), occurring 24-72 h postexercise, is characterized by pain and decreased force production. Recent evidence suggests DOMS may result from damage to muscle spindle afferents rather than to muscle fibers. We hypothesized that this type of disruption impairs the central integration of proprioceptive inputs, reducing the efficiency of body-related motor imagery. In a controlled study, young sports science students were assigned to a DOMS group (n = 47)-induced by whole body eccentric exercises-or a control group (n = 47). All participants then performed mental rotation tasks; for the DOMS group, this assessment took place 48 h postexercise. The stimuli took the form of body images (arms and legs), and there was also a control condition involving nonbody images (the number "2"). Response times and accuracy were measured. Accuracy in motor imagery tasks was unaffected by DOMS, indicating preserved body representations. However, participants with DOMS responded more slowly than control participants to the arm images (trend, P = 0.06; 1,189.3 ± 51.1 ms vs. 1,044.7 ± 42.7 ms, respectively) and leg images (P = 0.03; 1,280.2 ± 65.5 ms vs. 1,121.5 ± 42.3 ms, respectively), whereas no significant difference was observed for the number images (P = 0.55; 792.9 ± 29.5 ms vs. 831.2 ± 25.7 ms, respectively). This selective slowing suggests that DOMS transiently reduces the efficiency, but not the accuracy, of proprioceptive-motor integration. These results suggest that acute muscle soreness imposes a measurable computational cost on the sensorimotor system, requiring participants to mobilize time-consuming internal models to maintain representational accuracy in the face of peripheral proprioceptive noise.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study demonstrates that exercise-induced muscle soreness selectively impairs the efficiency of proprioceptive integration during body-related motor imagery, but without affecting global cognitive performance. By revealing how temporary peripheral disturbances alter internal sensorimotor representations, these findings provide new insights into the neural mechanisms of sensorimotor integration. This work highlights the functional consequences of acute muscle soreness for motor planning and offers a framework for understanding how the nervous system adapts to temporary proprioceptive disruption.

We examined the cognitive effects of American Sign Language (ASL) proficiency in visual-spatial reasoning, challenging interpretations of the traditional critical period hypothesis that early language acquisition primarily predicts cognitive outcomes across domains. We analyzed behavioral tasks in 40 participants with varying levels of ASL fluency and age of acquisition (AoA) using cluster analysis. We assessed participants using the Vandenberg-Kuse Mental Rotation Test (VKMRT), a Block Design (BD) task, and the ASL Comprehension Test (ASLCT). Our results show that ASL proficiency, not early AoA, best predicts performance on visual-spatial tasks, suggesting that sustained engagement with ASL may be associated with enhanced visual-spatial reasoning. Regression analyses showed that ASLCT scores significantly predicted BDSS (b = 0.19, p < .05), while AoA did not contribute significant variance (ΔR2 = .007, p > .05). Complementary cluster analyses identified distinct cognitive profiles, confirming that high-performing subgroups were differentiated by proficiency rather than early acquisition. These findings support embodied cognition and experience-dependent neuroplasticity accounts of language–cognition relationships, while remaining consistent with evidence that critical period effects may differentially constrain core language acquisition more than related cognitive domains. We discuss implications for culturally and linguistically appropriate cognitive assessment practices for DHH populations and provide recommendations for future studies.

Nursing students often report high anxiety and low confidence when anticipating patient aggression during mental health clinical rotations. A quantitative, quasiexperimental pre-post design was used to evaluate the feasibility of implementing preclinical aggression management training with a small cohort of students at one site. Training was implemented without barriers, demonstrating feasibility. Preliminary findings suggest potential benefits for student preparedness, although sample size and setting were limited. Aggression management training prior to clinical placement is feasible and warrants larger, multisite studies to evaluate effectiveness in reducing student anxiety and improving confidence.

Explicit mental imagery (i.e., voluntary and conscious) can enhance learning in declarative memory. In the present work, we assessed whether implicit imagery tasks also enhances memory, and whether specific imagery modalities (motor, visual) selectively benefit the learning of related material. Seventy-two young adults completed a recognition task in which they learned action and non-action verbs presented after an implicit motor imagery task (i.e., hand mental rotation) or an implicit visual imagery task (i.e., number mental rotation). Results from both frequentist and Bayesian generalized mixed-effects models revealed a significant interaction between verb type and imagery modality. Congruent imagery modality (i.e., motor for action verbs, visual for non-action verbs) enhanced subsequent recognition compared to incongruent modality (i.e., motor for non-action verbs, visual for action verbs). These findings provide novel evidence that the effectiveness of mental imagery for learning is influenced by the congruence between imagery modality and the sensorimotor features of the learned items. They also suggest that mental imagery does not need to be fully voluntary or fully conscious to improve learning.

Challenges remain in developing a comprehensive understanding of spatial cognition, including gender and developmental differences, partly due to limitations of well-established spatial measures. Many traditional tasks face accessibility constraints and are not well suited for use across broad age ranges, populations, or ability levels. The present study introduced two game-based tasks, Q-bitz® and Spot it!®, designed to assess mental rotation and object location memory, respectively. We examined whether these game-based measures meaningfully complement established spatial tests, the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and the Object Location Memory (OLM) task, across a wide age range (7-79 years, N = 114). Results indicated that MRT scores were strongly related to Q-bitz performance, whereas OLM scores were strongly related to Spot it! performance, supporting the convergent validity of the game-based tasks. Notably, gender-specific patterns emerged in the relationships among spatial measures, suggesting differences in spatial function. Age was associated with performance on speeded tasks (Q-bitz and Spot it!) but not with accuracy-based MRT or OLM performance. Together, these findings demonstrate that game-based assessments capture meaningful spatial constructs and reveal gender-specific patterns across the lifespan, providing a practical and ecologically valid approach for advancing research on spatial cognition.

Virtual Reality (VR) training systems often rely on visual cues, which can compete for the user’s attention, particularly in high-skill domains like surgery or assembly. While vibrotactile guidance offers a non-visual alternative, current single-limb systems suffer from limited spatial resolution, restricting their directional precision for complex tasks. To overcome this limitation, we propose a multi-limb “Tacton (symbolic vibrotactile patterns)” strategy that distributes vibrotactile information across anatomically distinct limbs (the wrist and ankle). We conducted two experiments to validate this approach and determine the optimal reference frame for inter-limb coordination. Experiment 1 ( N = 12 ) evaluated the distribution strategy by comparing the directional precision of single-limb (wrist and forearm) versus multi-limb (wrist and ankle) configurations using a novel temporal pattern encoding for 32 unique directions. Results demonstrated that distributing cues significantly improved precision, reducing angular errors to under 22.5 ° in over 77% of trials compared to the single-limb condition. Experiment 2 ( N = 12 ) addressed the cognitive challenge of coordinating these distributed signals by comparing a body-based “Skeletal” frame with an environment-based “World” reference frame. The “World” frame, which maps cues to an allocentric coordinate system, yielded substantially faster reaction times and lower angular errors than the “Skeletal” frame, minimizing the cognitive load associated with mental rotation. We conclude that high-precision, non-visual hand guidance is best achieved by distributing symbolic haptic cues across separate limbs and mapping them to a stable, allocentric coordinate system. These findings provide foundational design principles for creating immersive, hands-free guidance systems that preserve the user’s visual-attentional resources.

BackgroundAugmented reality (AR) can provide risk-free training for medical trainees, yet little is known about which learner characteristics facilitate adoption or inform training design.ObjectiveWe aimed to identify which learner characteristics predict AR performance in novices. We hypothesized that higher visuospatial ability and greater video game experience would be associated with faster completion times and fewer errors.MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, 21 undergraduate, graduate, and medical students (median age 22, IQR 21-24 years) without previous AR experience were recruited between June and December 2024. Participants completed a technology experience survey, the mental rotation task (MRT) for visuospatial ability, a standardized 7-task AR protocol mimicking clinical use on the Microsoft HoloLens 2 (hologram manipulation, orbit tracing, anatomical plane visualization, and hologram-to-object registration), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index for cognitive load assessment. Outcome measures included completion time, slips (unintentional errors), and tracing quality.ResultsAll analyses used a significance of α=.05. MRT scores did not predict baseline performance time (Pearson r=0.15, 95% CI −0.32 to 0.55; P=.54) or error rates (r=0.18, 95% CI −0.27 to 0.57; P=.43). Participants with extensive video game experience (>5 hours/week) made fewer slips (unpaired t test; mean difference −2.62 slips, 95% CI −5.19 to −0.04; P=.047), without faster completion times (Mann-Whitney test; median difference −22 seconds, 95% CI −7.00 to 57.00; P=.24). Video game experience did not predict baseline performance time (Pearson r=−0.35, 95% CI −0.69 to 0.13; P=.14). Significant learning effects emerged in unadjusted analyses: completion times decreased on attempts 2 and 3 compared with attempt 1 (mixed-effects analysis: mean difference 28.75 seconds, 95% CI 12.98-44.52; P<.001; 28.00 seconds, 95% CI 10.75-45.25; P=.002, respectively) with fewer slips (Friedman test: χ22=17.8; P<.001; Dunn post hoc: P=.008 and P<.001, respectively). Orbit tracing (Wilcoxon test: median difference −5 seconds; P=.004) and virtual landmark placement times improved (Friedman test: χ23=14.6; P=.002; Dunn post hoc; P=.009 and P=.02), but physical landmark placement did not. Covariate-adjusted models revealed no significant trial-by-covariate interactions.ConclusionsVisuospatial ability does not predict clinically relevant AR performance, while extensive video game experience was associated with fewer errors. Despite previous studies emphasizing inherent learner characteristics in laparoscopy and endoscopy, covariate-adjusted models showed that AR learning curves were not significantly modified by MRT or video game experience. These findings suggest that early AR performance improvements among novice users are primarily driven by learning rather than visuospatial ability, supporting training approaches that emphasize structured practice, although the modest sample size limits detection of smaller effects.