Mediterranean Action Plan Research Articles

Improving data reliability to support marine pollution assessment according to MSFD Descriptor 8 in the European Seas: the contribution of EMODnet Chemistry

IntroductionAccording to the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD, 2008/56/EC), member states of the European Union (EU) had to develop a common approach in environmental monitoring and assessment. Regarding marine pollution assessments, large heterogeneities remain regarding sampling protocols, analytical methods, and quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) procedures. Further, data availability for Descriptor 8 (contaminants) was very fragmented in the first cycle of the MSFD. As one of the major EU spatial data infrastructures for providing access to marine data, EMODnet Chemistry has endeavoured to overcome data fragmentation and increase data ‘FAIRness’ (findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable).MethodsAiming to improve the reliability of marine contaminant data for assessment purposes under the MSFD, detailed QA/QC information was collected using a questionnaire based on the requirements of the European Environment Agency, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, United Nations Environment Program–Mediterranean Action Plan, and NORMAN Network. The questionnaire was distributed to institutions in 26 countries participating in EMODnet Chemistry.ResultsInformation was received from 18 countries on ~90% of the substances included in EU legislation on priority substances. The results indicate an overall good level of laboratory proficiency; however, heterogeneities were observed in sampling protocols (especially for biota) and analytical methods (e.g. for metals), suggesting the potential for increased harmonisation. While laboratory proficiency and equipment depend on institutional resources that may differ among countries, it is fundamental to share detailed QA/QC information associated with data to improve data reliability and re-usability, and to support marine pollution assessment.DiscussionEnriching data with required metadata and detailed QA/QC is part of the data curation process, which is still an overlooked aspect of the overall scientific research process and is crucial to support a reliable assessment of marine pollution, and ultimately better management of the marine environment.

Methodological Notes for Cost and Benefit Analysis of Drilling in Eastern Mediterranean

The Mediterranean Action Plan of the United Nations is legally the only set of binding policies to address common issues and challenges of environmental degradation and the protection of marine and coastal ecosystems in the Mediterranean. The oil and gas industry is at the heart of the global economy and crucial for many national economies, including developing and emerging countries, being a driving force for economic growth. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA), known also as Social Cost Benefit Analysis, is a method of evaluating investment plans and their impact with a view to socioeconomic well-being and the environment. In order to be able to answer the question whether or not research and subsequent mining of hydrocarbons should be done in the Eastern Mediterranean, one should consider all of the above, affecting political answers, especially as climate change is more visible than ever and the potential costs of these activities are difficult to assess

The Mediterranean Sea Basin as a Single Ecosystem: Problems and Prospects for International Cooperation

The article justifies that the Mediterranean Basin in the broad sense (Mediterranean, Black, Azov and Marmara Seas) is a single ecosystem. The state of this ecosystem is affected by the rivers of this water intake basin, among them - the Nile, Tiber, Po, Rhone, Ebro, Danube, Don and others. The interconnection of the individual elements of the ecosystem is ensured through active water exchange and a sufficiently branched system of currents that turn the inland seas of the Mediterranean basin into communicating vessels. The paper analyzes the main anthropogenic factors, as well as the influence of climate changes on the ecological condition of the Mediterranean ecosystem. Within the framework of anthropogenic impact, special attention is paid to the negative impact of urbanization, the oil industry (production, transportation and oil refining), industrial and agricultural waste, as well as runoff waters. The problem of plastic, as well as contamination with dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is discussed in detail. Analysis of DDT accumulations in the bottom sediments of the Mediterranean basin makes it possible to study the synchronization of anthropogenic processes and their long-term nature. Aridization (intensification of droughts) in the Mediterranean is shown as an important problem for the regional ecology, not directly related to the anthropogenic factor. The article reveals the disastrous effects of increasing droughts and climate change on Mediterranean basin countries. International cooperation to regulate transboundary environmental problems in the region is associated with a number of problems. Among them is the delimitation of sea zones between countries, first of all - the territorial claims of Turkey in the Eastern Mediterranean. The problem of the shelf around the Serpents Island in the Black Sea is also considered, as well as territorial disputes in the Western Mediterranean (France/Spain). The paper widely presents successful cases of cross-boundary cooperation: the 1976 RAMOGE Agreement, the 1975 Mediterranean Action Plan and the 1995 Barcelona Convention, as well as its seven protocols. The cases of PEGASO and 4GreenInn projects, as well as the BSEC environmental projects, are considered as successful examples of cross-border academic cooperation. Promising areas of cooperation are outlined and the conclusion is made about the importance of transboundary environmental risk management, despite the political differences between the Mediterranean countries and the EU sanctions restrictions on Russia after 2014.

Spatial and temporal trends in the ecological risk posed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mediterranean Sea sediments using large-scale monitoring data

Benthic organisms play an important role in aquatic ecosystems and are often used as indicators of toxic environments. In this study, we reconstructed the spatial and temporal trend of risk to benthic communities living in sediments of the Mediterranean Sea posed by the presence of 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Moreover, the origins of PAH contamination in the sea were also investigated. The analysis included multiple steps, starting with an in-depth review of available studies (from the early 1980s to 2019) reporting PAH concentrations in sediments of the Mediterranean Sea. Subsequently, the collected data were spatialised and clustered according to the four basins of the Mediterranean as defined by the Mediterranean Strategy on Sustainable Development and the United Nations Environment Programme Mediterranean Action Plan. We employed additive models, a flexible and versatile tool for coping with non-linear trends by means of smooth functions, to estimate temporal trends in PAH concentrations. Finally, the primary origins of contamination and temporal trends in ecological risk were determined using a combination of approaches. The results indicated that PAHs in Mediterranean sediments originate primarily from biomass burning, with a contribution from combustion of coal and liquid fossil fuels, the latter being representative of sites near urban centres or harbours. A significant positive correlation between annual growth rates of PAH concentration in sediment and wildfires was found. The estimated non-linear trends of concentrations and risk showed different temporal patterns across basins. In recent years, especially in the Western Mediterranean, the estimated trends suggest PAH concentrations are posing an increasing risk. These results indicate the need for stronger efforts to achieve the objectives of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive.

Economic and environmental explanations for the scale and scope of coastal management around the Mediterranean

Coastal management involves multiple possible actions at various spatial scales. Yet, what determines in practice the scale and scope of coastal management? To address this question we investigate two possible explanations for the scale and scope of coastal management regimes: an economic explanation, focusing on the costs and benefits of widening the scale and scope of such management regimes, and an environmental explanation, focusing on the environmental issues and threats. To test these explanations, we analyze the relations between the economic and environmental dimensions and the scale and scope of coastal management in 17 Mediterranean countries using the co-plot method based on The Mediterranean Action Plan data.While we do find wider scale and scope of coastal management in countries with higher disposable income, these do not seem to be clearly and directly related to the intensity of specific economic activities that are more sensitive to environmental degradation or to level of pollution in coastal zone.

Karst Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (KAVA) Method—A Novel GIS-Based Method for Deep Karst Aquifers

Karst aquifers in the Dinaric karst are very rich with groundwater and are a very important resource for public water supply. The characteristics of the Dinaric karst are the lack, or very thin layer, of covering deposits, large amounts of precipitations, high groundwater velocities, very deep groundwater flow with a lot of faults and fault zones, pits to groundwater, concentrated sinking and large karst springs, making them extremely vulnerable to all anthropogenic influences, which are very quickly transmitted to the aquifer. Numerous multiparameter methods have been developed in the last 20 years to determine the level of vulnerability of aquifers. Each of them has its own specifics and is well adapted to the climate and region for which it was developed. The Karst Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (KAVA) method was developed in accordance with all the characteristics of the deep karst aquifers of the Dinaric karst and tested on several basins in the area. It was developed as a part of the Global Environment Facility United Nations Environmental Programme – the Mediterranean Action Plan Strategic Partnership for the Mediterranean Sea Large Marine Ecosystem (GEF UNEP/MAP MedPartnership Project). This paper presents the KAVA method and its application to two characteristic karst basins of the Dinaric karst: the Novljanska Žrnovnica spring catchment area and the Bakar Bay catchment area.

HOLOTIPUS IN MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION

The oceans are a vast yet fragile environment, and one of the biggest issues scientists have to tackle today is the conservation of marine biodiversity. In 1975, to try to address the physical, chemical and biological alteration of these delicate ecosystems, 16 Mediterranean States together with the European Union, implemented the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP). The aim was to safeguard the marine environment and promote its development in the Mediterranean basin.

COMPARAISON DES RESULTATS DE L’APPROCHE PAP/CAR ET LE MODELE USLE DANS LA CARTOGRAPHIE ET L’ESTIMATION QUALITATIVE DE L’EROSION HYDRIQUE DANS LE BASSIN VERSANT DE L’OUED AMLIL, (PRERIF - MAROC).

Este trabajo presenta los resultados de nuestro estudio sobre la cartografía y la estimación de la erosión del agua utilizando dos tipos de métodos. El primero es el del PAP/RAC 1998 que actúa en el marco del Plan de Acción para el Mediterráneo (PAM) del PNUMA, el segundo es el del modelo empírico de WISCHMEIER y SMITH 1978 (USLE).En la cuenca del Oued Amlil (153,7 km²) situada al noroeste de Taza (noreste de Marruecos) se dan todas las condiciones para que se desencadene y se acelere la erosión hídrica, las formaciones litológicas margosas blandas e impermeables (71,5%), una cobertura vegetal muy limitada (13,2%) y unas precipitaciones agresivas e intensas. El análisis de los datos naturales de la cuenca por el método PAP/CAR ha identificado cinco tipos principales de erosión (erosión muy alta 23%, erosión alta 48%, la clase de erosión significativa representa el 22%, 6% y 1% para las clases de erosión baja y muy baja respectivamente. Luego, las pérdidas de suelo fueron estimadas por el método USLE, los resultados obtenidos permiten identificar sectores a escala de cuenca donde las pérdidas tienen valores altos de 62.3% (alto riesgo entre 66 y 102 t/ha/año (34%), y muy altos (26.2%) entre 102 y 355.6 t/ha/año) This work presents the results of our study on mapping and estimating water erosion using two types of methods. The first is that of PAP/RAC 1998 acting within the framework of the UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), the second is that of the empirical model of WISCHMEIER and SMITH 1978 (USLE). In the catchment area of the Oued Amlil (153.7 km²) located to the North-West of Taza (North-East Morocco), all the conditions for triggering and accelerating water erosion are present, soft and impermeable marl lithological formations (71.5%), very limited vegetation cover (13.2%), and aggressive and intense rainfall. The analysis of the natural data of the watershed by the PAP/CAR method has identified five main types of erosion (very high erosion 23%, high erosion 48%, notable erosion class represents 22%, 6% and 1% for low and very low erosion classes respectively. Then, soil losses were estimated by the USLE method, the results obtained allow the identification of sectors at the basin scale where the losses have high values 62.3% (high risk between 66 and 102 t/ha/year (34%), and very high (26.2%) between 102 and 355.6 t/ha/year). Le présent travail expose les résultats de notre étude concernant la cartographie et l’estimation de l’érosion hydrique selon deux types de méthodes. La première, est celle de PAP/CAR 1998 agisse dans le cadre du Plan d'action pour la Méditerranée (PAM) du PNUE, la seconde est celle du modèle empirique de WISCHMEIER et SMITH 1978 (USLE). Dans le bassin versant de l’Oued Amlil (153.7 km²) situé au Nord-Ouest de Taza (Nord-Est du Maroc), toutes les conditions de déclenchement et d’accélération de l’érosion hydrique sont présentent, des formations lithologiques marneuses tendres et imperméables (71.5%), un couvert végétal très limité (13.2%), et des précipitations agressives et intenses. L'analyse des données naturelles du bassin versant par la méthode de PAP/CAR a permis d’identifier cinq principaux types d’érosion (érosion très élevée 23%, 48% pour l’érosion élevée, la classe d’érosion notable représente 22%, 6% et 1% pour les classes d’érosion faibles et très faible respectivement. Ensuite, les pertes en sol ont été estimées par la méthode d’USLE, les résultats obtenus permettent l’identification des secteurs à l’échelle du bassin où les pertes connaissent des valeurs élevées 62.3% (risque forte entre 66 et 102 t/ha/an (34%), et très fort (26.2%) entre 102 et 355.6 t/ha/an).

Stanje okoliša slovenskog dijela Jadranskog mora

Slovenian part of the Adriatic Sea is its most northern part which occupies approximately 200 km2 and is a part of the wider Gulf of Trieste. Slovenian coast consists of 47 kilometers of mostly steep, abrasive marl and sandstone coast. Low accumulation coast is located only at the mouths of the watercourses and represents but a smaller portion, whereas the smallest part is occupied by the limestone abrasion coast. Mainland coastal region is mostly hillside and has a very diverse relief, while plains, in smaller numbers, are located only in the lower parts of the river valleys. Slovenian sea indents the mainland by two larger gulfs: the Gulf of Koper and of Piran and is predominately very shallow. The average depth is around 18 m and the largest depth is 38 m at the Madona cape near Piran. Sea bottom is mostly covered by the thick layer of sediments deposited after the abrasion of the steep cliff coast and by the accumulation of the river alluvium. Due to its shallowness the sea is exposed to high temperature fluctuations and due to the fresh water influx also to the changes of its salinity.The circulation of the sea water is mainly induced by the tide and wind activities, mostly the Bora (strong north-easterly wind) which significantly influences the vertical circulation of the water. Water current is weak and unstable. There is a large influx of nutrients into the Slovenian sea, resulting from the soil erosion, surface water influx, watercourses and direct emissions of waste waters into the sea. The consequence of the mentioned sea characteristics is a great landscape sensitivity of the coastal sea ecosystem. During summer the sea warms intensely and when accompanied by the weak water circulation, we are often witnessing the lack of oxygen in the deeper layers of the water, intensive algae growth and sea blooming, which points to exceeded self-cleaning (assimilation) capacities of the marine ecosystem.The major polluters are the coastal towns of: Koper, Izola, Piran and Portorož, nautical tourism with marines, naval traffic and the port activity of the Luka Koper. The pressures on the marine ecosystem due to the human activities are still increasing, both on the mainland and in the sea, despite some measures to reduce the pollution. According to the assessment of the Mediterranean action plan (UNEP-MAP), Slovenian coastal sea is, due to its oceanographic characteristics and the economic activities influence, ranked among the most sensitive and endangered parts of the Mediterranean. Environmental state of the Slovenian part of the Adriatic Sea will try to be presented through the DPSIR model or the amended Integral Model of Geographical Study of the Environment and its Components.

Integrated Coastal Management: lessons learned to address new challenges

In 1969, the Stratton Commission presented to the US Congress a keystone report in the field of coastal management, which eventually culminated in the US Coastal ZoneManagement Act of 1973 that marked commencement of coastal management programmes in the USA. Since then the subject has gone global and now is being sub-summed into the area of Marine Spatial Planning. The Rio summit in 1992 provided a large impetus for Mediterranean regions and in 1995, the revised Barcelona Convention introduced the second phase of the Mediterranean Action Plan, to be followed 1 year later by the European Union funded Demonstration Programme on Integrated Coastal Zone Management. The end result of the above has been a plethora of global research activities from which many tools and instruments varying from simple to extremely sophisticated, have evolved together with approaches, such as, ‘community/ecosystem based’, ‘satoumi,’ etc. A Global Congress on: ‘Integrated Coastal Management (ICM):Lessons learned to address new challenges,’ was held at Marmaris, Turkey, In November, 2013, organised by the Medcoast Coastal Foundation, Dalyan, Turkey and the International EMECSCentre, Kobe, Japan, co-organised with Sitki Kocman University, Mugla, Turkey. EU Projects PEGASO and MARLISCO contributed considerably to the outcome of the 186 papers presented and published. From these ten were selected for this Special Issue of the Journal of Coastal Conservation andManagement and the topics were completely rewritten to a much greater depth. The main focus is the Mediterranean and Black Seas, but three ‘outliers’ have been included, e.g. Kate Pike et al., investigated cultural ecosystem services in Canada and the UK using Q methodology to examine ‘unmeasurable’ values, converting qualitative, subjective data to quantitative information; whilst Peter Lawless gave three New Zealand case studies of sociometric and structural analyses utilised for local level consensus that could be transposed into regional and national administrative systems. A keynote presentation by Frank van der Meulen et al., concerned dune compensation issues in the Netherlands and its implications for dune areas elsewhere in the world. Gonzalo C. Malvarez, Emilia G. Pintado, Fatima Navas & Alessandro Giordano set the scene by looking at, ‘Spatial data and its importance for the implementation of UNEP MAP ICZM Protocols for the Mediterranean.’ One of the key elements of work carried out via the European Commission, Framework Programme 7, 2010, PEGASO project, was Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) development together with sustainability multiscale integrated assessments tools. The aim was to produce a model of Mediterranean and Black Sea regions that integrated data from different formats. Continuing with tools needed in ICM, Mamuka Gvilava, Tamar Bakuradze & Amiran Gigineishvili’s, ‘Easy to Use Tools for ICZM Progress Reporting and Coastal Indicators,’ looked at how Black Sea countries utilised EU ICM indicators, and particularly stressed software issues. The Georgian coast was used as an example of the application of spectrum-type visualisation to coastal issues to derive coastal sustainability indicators and recommendation were made. The environmental management modelling theme was carried on by the paper of Peter Lawless; ‘Application of SociometricMethods to Collaborative CoastalManagement.’ Three New Zealand case studies were analysed in a sociometric framework from pre-initiation research to completed * Allan T. Williams allan.williams@virgin.net

Challenges and difficulties in assessing the environmental status under the requirements of the Ecosystem Approach in North African countries, illustrated by eutrophication assessment.

Marine ecosystems provide many ecosystem goods and services. However, these ecosystems and the benefits they create for humans are subject to competing uses and increasing pressures. As a consequence of the increasing threats to the marine environment, several regulations require applying an ecosystem-based approach for managing the marine environment. Within the Mediterranean Sea, in 2008, the Contracting Parties of the Mediterranean Action Plan decided to progressively apply the Ecosystem Approach (EcAp) with the objective of achieving Good Environmental Status (GES) for 2018. To assess the environmental status, the EcAp proposes 11 Ecological Objectives, each of which requires a set of relevant indicators to be integrated. Progress towards the EcAp entails a gradual and important challenge for North African countries, and efforts have to be initiated to propose and discuss methods. Accordingly, to enhance the capacity of North African countries to implement EcAp and particularly to propose and discuss indicators and methods to assess GES, the aim of this manuscript is to identify the practical problems and gaps found at each stage of the environmental status assessment process. For this purpose, a stepwise method has been proposed to assess the environmental status using Ecologic Objective 5-Eutrophication as example.

Imagine coastal sustainability

Since 2000 Coastal Area Management Programmes (CAMPs) supported by UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and the Priority Actions Programme Regional Activity Centre (PAP/RAC) have been engaging local communities in assessment of their coastal sustainability. The Methods used since 2000 have been based upon an evolving methodology which is now called Imagine.In 2010 The CAMP Levante de Almeria began. “Imagine the future of our coast” is the slogan selected for this project which is intended to turn this area of southern Spain into a sustainability laboratory. The CAMP Levante de Almeria project is a test and a practical demonstration of how to implement Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) concepts in Spain in compliance with the ICZM Protocol (the seventh protocol in the framework of the Barcelona Convention). CAMP acts technically, environmentally and socially as a means to design and implement new practices, relating these to vertical and horizontal coordination between local and regional administration and public participation in decision-making processes related to the coastal zone. The fundamental objective of the project is to achieve wide scale agreement on the sustainable development of the coast.Drawing upon the history of the various CAMP projects, this paper explores progress made so far in the application of the Imagine methodology in CAMP Levante de Almeria and, by contrasting it with summary observations emerging from earlier Imagine applications in Malta, Lebanon, Algeria, Slovenia and Cyprus draws conclusions on the value of engaging coastal communities in sustainability self-assessment.

H. Montenegro

In 2012, the focus in the field of environmental protection (of international significance) was mainly on activities regarding the implementation of the previously ratified conventions. This activity was enabled by co-operation on a bilateral level (mainly with Italy) as well as with some international organizations. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), as an executive body of the Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism, is in charge of international co-operation and a significant amount of work in the field of co-operation. It has undertaken reporting and capacity-building efforts with the European Environment Agency (EEA). In addition, in the course of the previous year, the EPA has actively participated in UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) activities, through the working groups on monitoring and indicators of the environment, the UN Environment Programme’s Mediterranean Action Plan, and the European Union’s (EU) Framework Program for Research and Innovation—Horizon 2020—through programs fostering capacity building and participation....

Eutrophication and environmental policy in the Mediterranean Sea: a review

The Mediterranean Sea is a semienclosed basin connected with the open sea mainly through the Strait of Gibraltar. Due to the circulation pattern and the long residence time ranging between 80 and 100 years, the Mediterranean Sea is a sensitive environment to eutrophication pressures. The main body of water of the Mediterranean is characterized by very low nutrient concentrations, and therefore, the Mediterranean is classified among the most oligotrophic (very poor waters in nutrients) seas of the world's oceans. However, some coastal areas, mainly in the northern part of the basin, receive excessive loads of nutrients from sewage effluents, river fluxes, aquaculture farms, fertilizers, and industrial facilities, showing intense eutrophic phenomena with many adverse effects for the marine ecosystem and humans. Various national and international authorities, in addition to monitoring, have taken legal and administrative measures to mitigate eutrophication trends in the area. The Mediterranean environment is a good paradigm of integration of extensive legal framework, scientific knowledge, and administrative practices. The Barcelona Convention, the Mediterranean Action Plan, and European Union Directives on water quality and coastal management, together with scientific information derived from international research programs in the Mediterranean, provide a sound background for practical actions in eutrophication problems. In the present work, the problem of coastal eutrophication in the Mediterranean is reviewed in connection with public policies of the Mediterranean States based on national and international legislation and scientific knowledge on Mediterranean oceanography-ecology and actions coordinated by international bodies. These common actions and practices on coastal management are also discussed in relation to the need for sustainable development and protection of the coastal zone in the Mediterranean Sea.

A contribution to the implementation of ICZM in the Mediterranean developing countries

The purpose of this paper is to assess the level of implementation of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) principles in the Mediterranean developing countries at the moment of signing the protocol on ICZM for the Mediterranean, in the framework of the UNEP Mediterranean Action Plan of the Barcelona Convention. This assessment is based on the results of two advanced seminars on ICZM promoted by the Azahar programme of the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation for the Development (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation). The contribution of the participants of the seminar, who are representatives of national agencies related with ICZM in different Mediterranean countries, have been collected through a questionnaire including: (i) a ranking of the main coastal sectors and the main coastal issues of each country; (ii) significant initiatives for the sustainable development of the Mediterranean coastal zones; and (iii) the evaluation of the ICZM progress. The state of the coast, the level of implementation of ICZM and the main problems faced to apply it, have been detected for each country. None of the consulted countries have a full implemented integrated coastal zone management, the major problems being: (i) the lack of financial commitment for the implementation of ICZM; (ii) the lack of an assessment and monitoring system; (iii) the lack of knowledge regarding the coastal system; (iv) the lack of qualified human resources; and (v) the lack of public participation and administrative integration strategies based on information. From these conclusions, some recommendations to improve ICZM are also provided. The work presented in this paper is the starting point to assess the evolution and the reference from which ICZM will be improved through the protocol on ICZM for the Mediterranean.

Scenario tools for environmental planning. Supporting integrated coastal zone and water resources management in two Greek islands

This article critically examines the usefulness of scenarios in supporting environment-development planning, drawing from the experience of two differentiated case studies: integrated coastal zone in the Greek island of Rhodes (a country pilot project of the Coastal Area Management Programme implemented under the auspices of UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan) and a more recent application on Integrated Water Resources Management in the Greek island of Naxos. In the first case, the expert-led scenarios have provided input to the formal spatial planning. They were constructed in a systematic manner, incorporating spatial particularities, adopting a top-down and a bottom-up approach. Scenarios for Rhodes explored future opportunities, constraints and threats arising from a variety of development-environment scenarios. In the case of Naxos, scenarios were developed through a participatory process. They described various political and economic futures for the island, focussing mainly on water resources management. The advantages and limitations from the different use of scenario method are discussed.

Exploring discourses on international environmental regime effectiveness with Q methodology: A case study of the Mediterranean Action Plan

Extensive research has been done on the ‘high politics’ of negotiations of international environmental agreements. However, little attention has been paid to the effectiveness of their implementation after coming into force. Effectiveness cannot be easily measured, since different stakeholders use different criteria as the basis of their opinion. The purpose of this study is to investigate discourses on the effectiveness of an international environmental regime. The regime chosen is the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) – and its legal framework, the Barcelona Convention – which was established in 1975 under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Q methodology was used to reveal discourses on the effectiveness of UNEP/MAP. After collecting relevant literature and identifying the stakeholders, 25 in-depth interviews were conducted. The stakeholders were from the Secretariat of the Convention, academia, NGO workers, and others that studied or knew the subject well. From these interviews 294 statements were extracted, from which 44 were finally selected to be used in the Q study. The interviewees were approached for the second time to complete the Q sorts. This study revealed four distinct discourses concerning the effectiveness of international environmental regimes. It concludes that there is no one ‘right’ way of defining effectiveness and that no approach can provide more than a partial evaluation of the overall effectiveness of a regime.

What determines the institutional performance of environmental regimes?

Although there is fierce debate about how best to evaluate the effectiveness of international regimes, most writers regard institutional effectiveness as the best measure. This article examines the institutional effectiveness of one regime—the Barcelona Convention (or the Mediterranean Action Plan)—where there are sharply contrasting views of its institutional effectiveness. The study finds that the regime was indeed successful when created, but its contemporary institutional performance is inadequate. The article demonstrates that there is no simple answer as to whether a regime is effective; instead, in most cases it depends on the specific criteria each approach employs.

Is science the driving force in the operation of environmental regimes? A case study of the Mediterranean Action Plan

This study examines the role of science in the operation of environmental regimes using the Barcelona Convention/Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) as a case study. The ‘epistemic communities’ theory suggests that emergence of the Mediterranean Action Plan was largely driven by scientific experts. In order to test the hypothesis that this theory also explains the operation of the regime, we used three methods of analysis. Firstly, we attempted statistical analysis of environmental data available from MED POL, secondly we analysed policy documents prepared by MAP including meeting documents and scientific publications and finally we conducted interviews with scientists. We found that the scientific epistemic community theory is appropriate to explain the formation of MAP, but it cannot account for its current operation.

Numerical modelling of the Marangoni effects induced by plankton-generated surfactants

Marine phytoplankton are known to produce surface-active materials as part of their metabolism. The surface tension gradient due to the presence of plankton-produced surfactants leads to a surface shear stress, commonly known as Marangoni stress. In this work we try to gain some understanding on these complex phenomena while, at the same time, obtaining some information on the order of magnitude of the surface stress and the resulting velocity in the bulk flow. As the direct modelling of the surfactants is extremely difficult due to the complexity (and uncertainty) of their chemical composition and to the absence of information on the rate of production by marine phytoplankton, we have formulated a model of their effects based on the data of surface activity of seawater samples as they are presented by Žutić et al. (1981) [Žutić, V., Ćosović, B., Marčenko, E., Bihari, N., 1981. Surfactant production by marine phytoplankton. Mar. Chem. 10, 505–520] and Žutić and Legovic (1990) [Žutić, V., Legovic, T., 1990. Relationship between phytoplankton blooms and dissolved organic matter in the Northern Adriatic. In: Final reports on research projects dealing with eutrophication and plankton blooms (activity h). Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) Technical Reports Series No. 37. United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Athens]. Using satellite data and a chlorophyll concentration profile reported in the literature we predict a Marangoni stress whose maximum order of magnitude is 10 − 6 N m − 2. We also present the results of a numerical test, where we evaluate the Marangoni stress caused by horizontal variations of the plankton distribution due to the converging flows in a thermal bar, obtaining a Marangoni stress of order of magnitude 10 − 5 N m − 2 and a corresponding velocity in the bulk that is at most equal to 10 − 4 m s − 1, with values of film pressure within the range of the data available in the literature.