In the announced article, the author continues to examine the history of education and enlightenment in Europe from the times of ancient Greece and Rome to the present day. With this publication, the author tries to draw attention to such a topic as the Intellectual Renaissance and the emergence of Universities in Europe during the "High" Middle Ages (12th–13th centuries). The article attempts to address the following questions: 1) to highlight the features of the Intellectual Renaissance of the 12th century; 2) to reveal the importance of Paris in inheriting the ancient heritage for Europe; 3) to show the place and role of Chartres and the Chartres spirit of scholarship in European intellectual life; 4) to present the role of the monastery in Sito and the Cistercians in the intellectual "fermentation" of the time; 5) to highlight the teaching activities and scientific views of Pierre Abelard, the first European intellectual-professor without a university degree; 6) to reveal the scholastic method of knowing God, the world, and man; 7) tell about the emergence of the artisan-intellectual and his workshop (workshop); 8) describe the founding of the first university corporations in Europe in the 12th – 13th centuries – Bologna, Paris, Oxford and other cities; 9) tell about the higher school of philosophy and law in Constantinople (Pandidakterion); 10) describe the state of education and enlightenment in Russia in the 12th–13th centuries. The university, which emerged in the 12th – 13th centuries as a guild corporation of masters and their students – “universitas magistrorum et scholarum” with its own law and academic freedom, had the right to unhindered movement of professors and students across European countries without borders (“peregrinatio academica”), enjoyed the unhindered right to strike for violation of its corporate rights and freedoms, including the right to freely move to another place of teaching and learning (secesio), had the right “ubique docendi”, according to which a university graduate, awarded the academic title of doctor, could lecture not only at his own, but also at any other university he wished to move to, while the professor lived off the students’ tuition fees and fees for diplomas of academic degrees. Starting from the 12th century, educated people, especially in cities, became a visible sign of medieval Western Europe. The decisive credit for this belonged to the Intellectual Revival and the Universities.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the study of the relationship and mutual influence of theological, anthropological, ethical views of Roman Stoicism and Christianity. The purpose of this work is to conduct a comparative analysis of late Stoic and Christian theology, anthropology, ethics and to demonstrate their relationship and relevance in the modern era. Materials and methods. The research material was the works of Plato and the Roman Stoics, the Epistles of the Apostle Paul, the writings of authors of the early Christian era and early Protestantism, modern scientific research, domestic and foreign, devoted to the analysis of the views of the Roman Stoics, the first Christians, the Epistles of the Apostle Paul, representatives of the Eastern and Western Christian churches of the Middle Ages; works, analyzing the interpenetration of Stoicism and Christianity. The author relied on the civilizational and dialectical approaches, used the following methods: narrative, hermeneutic in combination with linguistic, analytical, synthetic, generalization, reconstruction, comparative-historical. Results. As a result of the work done, it was established that the basic theological, anthropological, axiological and ethical ideas of the Roman Stoics and Christians (the essence of man, the path of life and existential meanings, eschatological perspective, moral principles) were formed as a result of mutual influence. Stoicism played a huge role in the formation of Christian doctrine, actively influenced the ascetic fathers of the early Christian Eastern Church and medieval Western Christianity, and the young Protestantism of the 16th century. The Stoics, in turn, relied on Christian wisdom in their philosophy. Discussion and conclusions. The author managed to carry out a comparative analysis of Stoic and Christian doctrines. The study showed that the spiritual kinship and mutual influence of Roman Stoicism and Christianity testifies to the illusory nature of the border separating the Hellenistic and Christian metatraditions. The practice of cognitive therapy aimed at finding existential meanings and inner harmony, developed by the Roman Stoics and the ascetic fathers of the Eastern Christian Church; the eternal ethical principles of Stoicism and Christianity are relevant in the modern era of moral degradation and semantic disorientation.

Abstract For the medieval West, the distant and strange Orient was a source of mysterious fascination and dreamlike inspiration, which is still remembered in literary works. The East attracts medieval Western people with its wealth and its art of living, just as much as it frightens them with its cruel customs. For Western medieval man, the ‘pagans’ who populated these lands symbolised the Other par excellence, in their language, their religion and their way of life. Standing out from the anonymous mass with their strong character, the Saracen chieftains are not only present in the texts for the local colour: they are the enemy who must be triumphed over, converted, and whose women, lands and horses must be taken. Our corpus of verse novels and chansons de geste features these terrifying yet admirable characters. The aim of this article is to draw up a composite portrait of the Eastern chieftains featured in these narrative and epic texts, crystallising the battle between East and West: on the one hand, the Frankish knight, the Christian king, the perfect Western hero; on the other, the Muslim emir, the Saracen admiral, both cruel and aesthetic, the absolute enemy whose undeniable values were, despite everything, recognised by authors and jugglers.

Historiography on the Jewish community in Florence has traditionally focused on the period following its official admission to the city in 1437. This essay, by contrast, seeks to investigate the reasons why the Florentine government had previously refrained from allowing Jews to settle permanently within the city. While medieval Western Europe was pervaded by a pervasive cultural substratum of anti—Judaism—an essential premise for any discussion of the subject—this study argues that, in the Florentine case, economic considerations played a more decisive role. The absence of a Jewish community, and particularly of Jewish moneylenders, prior to the consolidation of Medicean rule, will be examined in relation to the fiscal model developed by Florence in the early fifteenth century. Within this framework, the years of the War of Lucca (1429–1433) will emerge as especially significant, as they marked a moment of unprecedented fiscal pressure that shaped the Republic’s economic policies and social dynamics.

This paper examines the letters of debt and obligation preserved in the Lekhapaddhati, a Sanskrit-Gujarati manual of letter writing from early medieval Western India, precisely in the Gujarat. The time and place of its origin are linked to the dynasties of the Cāulukyas and their successors, the Vāghelās, whose rulers are frequently mentioned in the Lekhapaddhati. These letters, written in ‘mixed language’, offer a rare window into how debt was negotiated, acknowledged, and emotionally experienced in everyday life. Rather than viewing them as administrative or legal correspondence, this study reads them as reflections of a moral economy, where the circulation of money was governed as much by trust, honour, and social reputation. By analyzing two contrasting mortgage correspondences from the Lekhapaddhati, Gṛihaḍḍāṇaka Patra Vidhi Yathā and Gṛihaḍūli Patra Yathā, this paper explores the structural composition of the letters, identities of creditors and debtors, the role of witnesses and intermediaries, and the diverse emotions through which obligation and trust were articulated. Through the comparative analysis of both correspondences, the paper seeks to reconstruct the everyday texture of credit relations and the ethical world within they were embedded.

This article explores devotional responses to childbirth in Byzantine and medieval Western Christianity, focusing on the interplay between maternal experience, sacred objects, and saintly intercession. It begins by examining how the Virgin Mary was revered as a powerful intercessor in matters of fertility and childbirth. Drawing on literary, liturgical, and visual sources, the study also highlights vernacular practices such as the use of ritual girdles and protective garments. It then traces how these traditions migrated to Western Europe, where Mary’s girdle became a widespread devotional object, particularly in Italy and England. Later in the study, special attention is given to the cult of Saints Julitta and Kerykos, known in the West as Quiricus/Cyricus and Julitta, a mother-and-child martyr pair whose veneration in the Latin West gained renewed significance in the late Middle Ages, particularly through its symbolic parallels with Marian devotion in childbirth-related contexts. While Byzantine traditions emphasized theological regulation and elite contexts, Western Christianity fostered more accessible, embodied, and affective forms of devotional practice. The article concludes that childbirth devotion, variably expressed across regions, formed a significant part of Christian spirituality, shaped by institutional authority, local needs, and ritual acts grounded in bodily experience and articulated through images, objects, and gesture.

The article is devoted to the study of the practice of imposing death sentences and their execution in the medieval Western European judicial system. The evolution of the specifics of the appointment and principles of the application of death sentences in criminal proceedings in Western Europe in the Middle Ages is analyzed. It has been found that the death penalty was widely accepted in the medieval West as the ultimate punishment for a long list of crimes. The Christian Church did not hesitate to sentence those accused of the crime of heresy to the death penalty, although execution always remained within the competence of the secular branch of government. It is noted that due to the reception of Roman or common law, personal revenge and monetary compensation as part of the punishment system of early medieval feudal societies gave way to punishment as a public consequence of a crime from the 13th century. The authors believe that the state authorities gradually expanded their intervention in regulating the mechanism of revenge by assigning exclusive competence to consider certain types of crimes exclusively by royal courts (“royal cases”) and introducing a ban on any violence during certain periods (“God’s peace”). It is noted that as a result of the transition from private to public administration of justice, the imposition of death sentences became a privilege of the state. The introduction of a new criminal philosophy, according to which cruel and public punishment was intended to have a punitive and deterrent function, was supposed to generate fear, and this fear was supposed to deter future criminal acts. Court records demonstrate a diverse and inventive typology of methods of execution of criminals (hanging, beheading, drowning, burning at the stake, and shooting with arrows). It is concluded that 1) the death penalty in Western Europe acquired in the Middle Ages the character of a ritual, a public theatrical spectacle (preparation of the condemned to death, taking to the gallows, execution, public display of the corpse, burial); 2) the public application of the death penalty was intended to assert the power and control of the monarchy over justice; 3) in the late Middle Ages, replacing the death penalty with exile, payment of a fine, service in the army or in the galleys became a common practice.

Due to the limited literature, previous studies on Byzantine economic thought did not pay enough attention towards it as in the field of economic thought of medieval Western Europe, while in recent decades, Byzantine scholars have discovered sufficient materials. However, on the one hand, there are few detailed interpretations from the view of economist of original archives, legal comments and recent published materials. On the other hand, a chronological retrospection remain undiscussed in the view of economic thought. This paper will mainly attempt to make clearer and more integrated the Byzantine economic thought, focusing on 8-12th century the very mid-byzantine time, during which Byzantium were believed to have the character of a wide-ranging empire and relatively active economic activities. In the first part, I will discuss economic thought in rural and urban Byzantium in the 8th-10th centuries in the context of law and agrarian books. In the second part, the late 11th-century Strategikon of Kekaumenos will be revisited in terms of the history of economic thought, which will be an attempt to clarify the economic thought of the 12th century layman. Finally, with reference to the latest research, I will explore economic thought in the law commentaries of ecclesiastical law scholars almost contemporary with Kekaumenos.

While Jewish-Christian relations, and specifically polemic between Jews and Christians, have long been a focus of study for scholars of Byzantium and medieval Western Europe, Jewish-Christian relations under Islamic rule during the medieval and early modern periods, in lands surrounding the Indian Ocean or in Christian kingdoms outside of Byzantium and Europe, have received little scholarly attention. This article addresses this lacuna and analyzes the structure and nature of polemic in Egypt and the Levant, in lands ruled by or with a strong Armenian presence, as well as in Ethiopia, and, finally, India. In this article I posit that Jewish- Christian polemic in these regions comes about both as a result of local religious and political agendas, and through dynamic exchanges with Byzantium and Western Europe. In Egypt and the Levant hagiography and anti-hagiography were particularly important vehicles for polemic, as well as were formal polemical treatises, dialogues, (many of which still need to be edited), and depictions in historical chronicles. In Armenia and Ethiopia, hermeneutical Judaism was a frequently used polemi- cal tactic, although in Ethiopia polemical treatises and hagiographies also figure prominently.2 Early modern accounts of actual Armenian Christian-Jewish relations under Safavid and Ottoman rule points to a degree of sympathy and cooperation in addition to polemic. Finally, in India, formal polemic by Christians against Jews is shown to be an early modern European importation.

The subject of the research article is the philosophical-theological model of man as God's image and likeness by Anselm of Canterbury, presented in his treatise "Why God Became Man." Anselm, unlike Eastern theologians, asserts the necessity of the incarnation of man in the person of the Word (Logos), which allows for the preservation of the integrity of each nature and the union of God with man without transformation or displacement of natures. The incarnation of God in man is considered by him as a necessity (necessitate) that comes from God Himself to "restore life to the world." The death of the God-Son in Anselm's model acts as a divine necessity to realize His own being through man, which in turn makes the existence of man possible. This anthropocentric view opens a foundation in the Middle Ages for the subsequent development of discourse about man in the Renaissance. The article employs methods of philosophical and theological analysis, as well as a comparative-historical approach to study the concepts of deification in medieval thought. It also uses methods of conceptual analysis and interpretation of metaphors. These methods allow for tracking the development of ideas about differentiation, freedom, and self-knowledge within the framework of medieval philosophical-theological tradition. The scientific novelty of this research lies in the comprehensive and interdisciplinary analysis of the concepts of deification and the God-Man, integrating historical-theological, philosophical, and methodological approaches. In particular, it systematically compares Eastern and Western traditions for the first time, revealing their similarities and differences in understanding the role of the Incarnation, the nature of man, and the process of deification, as well as analyzing the metaphysical foundations of these teachings in light of the development of scholastic thought. Furthermore, the work proposes a new interpretation of the Incarnation as the ontological foundation of the being of both man and God, and it reveals the influence of this concept on the formation of contemporary views about man in the context of Christian anthropology and theodicy. Thus, the research makes a significant contribution to the development of theological and philosophical discourses, expanding the understanding of the relationship between the divine and human principles through the lens of deification and the Incarnation.

The paper deals with two seemingly opposing fields pertaining to the relationship between theology and philosophy, in which the pursuit of apprehending Divinity through human experience may have divergent meanings. However, such an assumption only seems apparent in relation to scholastic thought, which turns out to be closely linked to religious thinking, both in the fields of theology and philosophy, which do not diverge from each other in sharp contrast. This is demonstrated in three sections, drawing on the source and supplementary literature, although rather in a general and opinion-forming approach than in the form of a systematic exegesis aimed at justifying this coherence. I also provided a brief introduction and some concluding remarks. In the following research, I examine the obvious links between theology and philosophy that point to the validity of this thesis. I based my thesis on historical and analytical insight into the leading metaphysical trends of medieval Western Scholasticism and Aquinas’ concept of Ipsum Esse, as well as comparable ideas in the second Latin scholastic thought at the turn of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, otherwise mainly observable in Francisco Suárez of the Jesuit Order. The last issue, I set out more extensively, refers to the Aquinas’ Ipsum Esse, which is a theory commonly tied to existential metaphysics, less frequently so with theology. Nevertheless, it can be reasonably demonstrated that Aquinas presumably pointed to Ipsum Esse as a metaphysical category that may convincingly combine theology with philosophy by thinking of God as a supreme being manifesting Himself in His inner nature within reality. Through this approach, Aquinas seems to fill an important gap that usually divides these two disciplines. Despite their presumed divergences, they undoubtedly have something in common. In Aquinas and scholastics who followed him to a large extent, God turns out to be the primum movens and Ipsum Esse and an underlying concept for both theology, which operates on the borders of metaphysics, and metaphysics, which operates on the boundaries of theology, although they are approaching God from different perspectives in their own respective fields. They seem to somehow refer to the same object of knowledge, namely by referring to the concept of God as either a metaphysical foundation, a doctrinal premise for further inquiries, or the ultimate climax of the entire system of knowledge.

The aim of the article is to peep into the various modes of transportation used during the early mediaeval period (c. 600–1300 ad ) in Western India (particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat) for the easy movement of both commodities of exchange and people. The early mediaeval period in Western India is remarkable for its dynamic upsurge in trade and commercial activities. Since trade during this period was not merely confined to the inland regions, we see a marked increase in the movement of people involved in the trading business along with commodities of exchange to distant places (foreign lands) by both land and sea routes. Moreover, travelling in those times was not an easy affair, as it involved much hardship, and the threat of robbers and pirates. The present study is primarily based on literary and epigraphical sources of early mediaeval centuries.

Origin legends in early medieval Western Europe. Edited by Lindy Brady and Patrick Wadden. (Reading Medieval Sources, 6.) Pp. xii + 474 incl. 19 colour and black- and-white ills. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2023. €198. 978 90 04 40036 8; 2589 2509 - Volume 76 Issue 2

:<i>Strangers at the Gate! Multidisciplinary Explorations of Communities, Borders, and Othering in Medieval Western Europe</i>

This article explores the architectural features of the High Castle in Lviv in comparison with European fortifications from different historical periods, spanning from the “motte and bailey” castles of the X–XII centuries to the Gothic strongholds of the XIII–XIV centuries and the Renaissance bastion systems of the XVI century. The study aims to identify both similarities and distinctions between the High Castle and its European counterparts by examining aspects such as the use of natural topography for defense, functional zoning, and material evolution in fortification architecture. A key aspect of this comparison lies in the “motte and bailey” castles, a prevalent fortification type in early medieval Western Europe. These castles typically featured an artificial or natural mound (motte) crowned with a wooden or stone keep, along with an enclosed courtyard (bailey) serving economic and residential functions. The High Castle shares structural similarities with these fortifications due to its elevated location and strategic division into upper and lower courtyards. However, unlike many “motte and bailey” castles, which were predominantly wooden, the High Castle incorporated a combination of wooden and stone structures from the outset, a characteristic more typical of later fortifications such as Carcassonne in France and Windsor Castle in England. The study further examines the impact of Gothic fortifications on the architectural evolution of the High Castle. Gothic castles such as Carcassonne and Hohenzollern prioritized tall stone walls, rounded towers, and complex defensive systems, which allowed for improved visibility and protection. While the High Castle in Lviv incorporated some of these elements, it lacked the double curtain walls and advanced moats typical of fully developed Gothic strongholds. This difference suggests a more localized approach to defensive architecture, integrating Western influences with regional construction traditions.

This study critically examines the formal and semantic contexts of scenes depicting both illuminated and extinguished candles in Western art. Within the repertoire of religious imagery, candlelight functions as a symbol of the divine presence, representing the eye of God, while Christ is identified as the lux mundi (light of the universe). The iconographic themes associated with these periods encompass significant scenes such as the Nativity, the Birth of the Virgin Mary, the Annunciation, the Pietà, the Adoration of the Shepherds, and the Death of the Virgin. Moreover, the candle assumes symbolic connotations of desire, votive offering, and commemoration, which are intrinsically linked to these themes. Through a systematic semantic and formal analysis of these depictions, the study identifies the Revelations of St. Bridget as a fundamental textual source informing the use of candles and candlelight in artistic representations. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the inclusion of candle imagery varies across artworks in both semantic interpretation and stylistic execution. This research is grounded in an extensive theoretical framework informed by scholarly monographs, journal articles, and visual documentation. The study's methodological approach involves the systematic collection and organization of relevant materials, the construction of a rigorous analytical framework, and the critical examination of primary and secondary sources accessed through various research libraries. Additionally, visual references have been obtained from academically recognized repositories and credible national and international digital archives, thereby ensuring the study's methodological rigor and scholarly validity.

Why is the history of intellectual change in the Middle Ages a history of selectively studied influences about which so few historians have dared venture generalizations? Why is it so rich with contradictions? And why do we have so little comprehensive knowledge about the translators behind these intellectual changes? To answer these questions, this article proposes a novel approach to the history of Greek-Latin translations between 1050 and 1350, which substantially reshaped the Medieval Latin intellectual landscape and the cultural history of Europe. After reviewing the conclusions in the most recent secondary literature, the essay offers a sketch of a historical analysis of translation-centered decision-making processes. In doing so, it singles out four hypotheses and describes four research areas corresponding to these assumptions. The proposed research examines the translators’ personalities and activities, their training, mobility, cultural patronage, networks and their audiences (including universities) that influenced their decisions when they chose to translate texts from Greek into Latin. Such an analysis will help us better understand the expanding cultural networks between the medieval Western and Eastern Mediterranean and the development of translations in Latin-using Western Europe.

The article examines the story by A. M. Remizov Melyusina, which is based on the plot of a medieval Western European novel. Its Russian translations, made in the 17th century, did not gain popularity, and the novel was almost unknown in Russia. Remizov, in fact, was the first Russian writer to turn to the retelling of this plot. He focused primarily on the Russian translation of the text, however, as the analysis showed, he also borrowed some elements from the French novel, as well as from historical and literary studies. At the same time, the priority for the author was not the consistent recreation of events, but their subjective and emotional experience. Accordingly, the stylistic dominant of the story is the lyrical principies. The article examines the techniques by which Remizov implements lyricalization of prose: reduction of the external-event plan and transfer of the dramatic collision to the inner world of the heroes; retardation; use of the traditions of the ancient chorus; creation of plot rhymes and leitmotifs; poetic syntax. All this contributes to a special, non-linear narrative, but associative-concentric development of content, which enriches the plot of the medieval novel and its central image with additional, authorial ideas.

The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the sociocultural factors contributing to the formation of the concept of a just war across various historical periods. A historical-philosophical reconstruction of the development of perceptions of just war from antiquity to the present is carried out, highlighting the main cultural and ideological contexts that influenced the formation of this concept. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of the role of moral, religious, and political factors in shaping perceptions of the permissibility of armed violence. The study explores the cultural foundations of the ancient tradition, where war was perceived not only as a necessity but as a form of moral realization of the individual. The heroic epic of ancient Greece and the Roman tradition of imperial stability shaped the understanding of war as a tool for harmony and stability. In the medieval Western Christian culture, war acquired a sacred dimension, becoming a form of spiritual accomplishment and a means of defending the faith. Special attention is given to the modern Ukrainian context, where the struggle for independence and state protection has gained moral justification through the symbolic structures of the national narrative. The analysis shows how cultural codes and symbols of national identity contribute to the legitimization of armed resistance, especially in the context of the Russian-Ukrainian conflict. It is established that the cultural legitimization of just war depends on the ideological context, dominant moral values, and social mobilization. Mass culture plays a significant role in shaping public perceptions of war, influencing the construction of enemy and hero images. It is noted that resolving conflicts requires a comprehensive approach, taking into account cultural narratives, religious motives, and social expectations. It is proven that the concept of a just war is not merely a theoretical construct but a deeply rooted phenomenon in the cultural practices of society that evolves along with transformations in sociocultural orientations. From antiquity to the present, the concept of just war has undergone significant changes, yet it remains an important element of moral reflection on military conflicts in various societies.

Objective: The aim of this study is to show the medical experience and practices in the third chapter of titled “About the Cases that happened to Razi” of the book titled Abubetri Rhazae Maomethi scientia peritiaque insignis medici in libros Aphorismorum, sive secretorum medicinalium Gerardo Toletano Cremonensi Interprete/The Knowledge and Experience of the Distinguished Physician’s in the Book of Aphorisms or The Secrets of Medicine of Abu Bakr Muhammad Razi Interpreted by Gerard of Cremona From Toledo which is situated in pages 517-546 of his book titled Abubetri Rhazae Maomethi, ob usum experientiamque multiplicem, et ob certissimas ex demostrationibus logicis indicationes, ad omnes praeter naturam affectus, atque etiam propter remediorum uberrimam materiam…quibus nihil utilius ad actus practicos extat, omnia enim penitus quae habet aut obscuriora, aut Galenus fusiora, fidellissime doctissimeque exponit, &amp; in lucem profert of which contains the works of Abu Bakr Muhammad Zakariyya al-Razi’s translated into Latin. Methods: Based on the 1544 Basel edition of the mentioned work, the relevant section was translated from Western Medieval Latin into Turkish. Then translated into English on the basis of the Turkish text. In the light of the data obtained, Razi’s approaches to case narratives were evaluated with the approaches of his predecessors, Hippocrates and Galen, and the case narratives in his own works. During the discussion, basic sources of medical history, the works of his predecessors Hippocrates and Galen, Razi’s own works and modern sources have been used. Results: As a result of the evaluation, in the cases narrated by Razi, there are people from different social groups such as Razi himself, the ruler, his friend and the slave. Findings such as the diseases that caused the case narratives, the treatment methods applied for these diseases, the presence of a negative opinion towards the physician, the feeling of trust between the physician and the patient, instant clinical observations and the duration of treatment have been obtained. Conclusion: In Razi’s case narratives, it has seen that he was influenced by the theoretical knowledge and practices of his predecessors, Hippocrates and Galen. In the case narratives presented by Razi, it has been noticed that while the patient group consisted of different people, some cases based on complaints such as paralysis, swelling, heat stroke, discharge, stomach pain and burning were repeated. In these narratives, it can be said that Razi’s style is dominated by clarity, comprehensibility and simplicity.