Mechanistic Dehumanization Research Articles

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Objective. The presented review aims to describe and critically analyze the two most popular approaches to understanding and operationalizing the concepts of “humanity” and “dehumanization” (Infrahumanization theory and Two-dimensional model of humanness). Background. The studies of prejudice has identified two key problems. The first problem is associated with the limitations of existing theories in understanding the nature of prejudices, and the second — with a low efficiency of assessing blatant prejudice since an increasing spread of egalitarian attitudes in the world changes the intergroup relations and contributes to a transformation of explicit prejudices into indirect forms. The theories and models of dehumanization has become the response to these problems since they offer a new conceptual framework for the analysis of intergroup and interpersonal relationships, and new methods for assessing indirect prejudice that are independent of a social desirability. Conclusions. The results of a theoretical analysis showed that in psychological studies, “humanity” is operationalized either through the unique human emotions and traits, the negation of which leads to the association between certain individuals or groups with animals and the emergence of animalistic dehumanization, or through a description of the “human” prototype, the discrepancy to which is associated with mechanistic dehumanization. Animalistic dehumanization is more common in the context of intergroup relations, and mechanistic dehumanization is more related to the processes of self-perception. Despite the contradictions between different approaches to understanding humanity and dehumanization, as well as some methodological problems within each of them, dehumanization is recognized as an important phenomenon which significantly enriches psychological knowledge and understanding of a process of social cognition and interaction.

MECHANISTIC DEHUMANIZATION IN ALDOUS HUXLEY’S BRAVE NEW WORLD

ABSTRACT 
 Knowledge advancement in the field of technology is often considered an advantage. Humans are living alongside the disadvantages. Dependency ontechnological inventions has brought humans to a threshold where technology goes beyond humanity. This occurrence thus possibly leads todehumanization. Two problems are proposed in this research: forms of mechanistic dehumanization and bad impacts of mechanistic dehumanization. The forms of mechanistic dehumanization focus on acts of human degradation while the bad impacts of mechanistic dehumanization focus on the human that represents machine and robot. Michel Foucault’s sociological theory is applied to reveal the problems proposed in this research. Two of Foucault’s concepts are considered appropriate to be utilized: Power and Knowledge and the Regime of Truth. Both concepts emphasize the practice of power imposed on the powerless and theacceptance by the powerless. The finding discloses that one who poses power and knowledge can produce laws that are imposed toward thepowerless and shape them as the powerful wish to obtain the benefit. The powerless ought to be submissive, obedient even accept the truth of lawsunconsciously. People in Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World show their unconscious acceptance of the Controller’s laws therefore they are treated and degraded as low as commodities to be made use of by the Controller. They become cold and rigid thus they show no distinction between humans and machines.

The Red Machine: The Dehumanization of the Communist Enemy in American Cold War Cinema

This article deals with the US Cold War cinematographic construction of the Soviet enemy. The researcher focuses on the means of dehumanising the communist enemy, external and internal, by equating it to a machine. The author applies Nick Haslam’s dual model of dehumanization (2006), according to which dehumanization is visible in two main forms: animalistic, by associating members of the out-group with animals, and mechanistic, by associating them with a soulless machine. The materials used consist of US films from the “Long Fifties”, in which Hollywood, equating the enemy to machines, developed three plots: the robotic existence of individuals in a totalitarian society; the transformation of Americans into zombies by communists by means of Soviet science; and the body snatching of Americans by an alien mind, an allegory of a future communist occupation of the USA. The article demonstrates that dehumanization was implemented by directly labeling the representatives of the communist world as robots and by attributing to them a lack of emotions, consciousness, will, individuality, initiative, warmth, love, friendship, creative abilities, and even the ability to smile. Such an image of the enemy implied a moral exclusion, treating them as an inanimate object unworthy of empathy, including in the event of their destruction. The author points out that the use of mechanistic dehumanization was very effective. Essentialization of the differences between “us” and “them” occurred: the symbolic border between them is presented as a boundary between living and nonliving. The image of mortal danger was created: the “Red Machine” is strong and merciless, it cannot be moved to pity, and so it is permissible to destroy it. This image contributed to the legitimation of power: the political opponents of the authorities are represented as internal enemies who are anxious to turn Americans into obedient executors of someone else’s will and to deprive them of humanity. At the same time, the machine also has weaknesses, and it is possible to defeat it: since it is devoid of human creativity, it is clearly inferior to the free human spirit embodied in America.

A New Look of Dehumanization in Work Domain: The Relationship between Communication Means and Disrespect to Deliveryman

The present study provides a new aspect to understand the disrespect to deliveryman. A survey was conducted based on the hypothesis which assumed that the disrespect is caused by the indirect communication via technology, mediated by mechanistic dehumanization. Using cashier as the representative of jobs which adopt traditional face-to-face communication, we tested the dehumanization of deliveryman through four measurements and then tested the disrespect degree by giving an unpleasant scenario. The result suggests that people significantly dehumanize deliveryman more in two measurements. Additionally, the dehumanization degrees of these two measurements are positively correlated with disrespect degrees. In general, the finding provides a new aspect to view the dehumanization in the work domain.

Dehumanization of the Opposition in Political Campaigns

ObjectiveThis article documents dehumanization in the 2016 presidential contest.MethodsUsing a mixed‐method approach, I analyze dehumanized portrayals of Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton in visual campaign rhetoric and on common survey measures of dehumanization.ResultsImages from the campaign discourse reflect animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization of the presidential candidates. The survey data reveal that voters dehumanize opposition candidates and party members in both subtle and blatant ways that also reflect this animalistic–mechanistic distinction.ConclusionThe findings affirm the external validity of measurement strategies for dehumanization by showing the correspondence between campaign imagery and common survey‐based measurement tools. This work situates dehumanization as a psychological process relevant to the study of campaigns and elections.

Dehumanization of dirty workers and attitudes toward social support

AbstractIn lay perception, dirty work is a type of labor that degrades human dignity. Work can be perceived as dirty on three bases: social (related to the subordinate position or associated with contact with stigmatized people), physical (related to direct contact with garbage and waste), and moral (related to jobs considered sinful, dubious, or defying social norms). “Dirty” stigma makes workers objects of dehumanization and discrimination, in particular, people distance themselves from dirty workers and are not ready to help and support them. In the experimental study (N = 340), we investigated how certain types of dirty workers are dehumanized compared to nondirty workers and the indirect effect of the type of dirty work on attitudes toward the social support of dirty workers via animalistic (attribution of uniquely human traits) and the mechanistic (attribution of human nature traits) dehumanization. The results show that individuals are willing to offer more social support to a low status but not dirty worker rather than to social or moral dirty workers. At the same time, less social support is provided to nondirty than to physical dirty worker. Animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization mediates the relationship between the types of dirty work and the attitudes toward social support. In particular, less dehumanization leads to more positive attitudes toward social support. The limitations and future directions of the obtained results are discussed.

A Needs-based Partial Theory of Human Injustice: Oppression, Dehumanization, Exploitation, and Systematic Inequality in Opportunities to Address Human Needs

This article presents an original needs-based partial theory of human injustice and shows its relationship to existing theories of human need and human liberation. The theory is based on an original typology of three social structural sources of human injustice, a partial theorization of the mechanisms of human injustice, and a needs-based theorization of the nature of human injustice, as experienced by individuals. This article makes a sociological contribution to normative social theory by clarifying the relationship of human injustice to human needs, human rights, and human liberation. The theory contends that human injustice is produced when oppression, mechanistic dehumanization, and exploitation create systematic inequality in opportunities to address human needs, leading to wrongful need deprivation and the resulting serious harm. In one longer sentence, this needs-based theory of the sources, mechanisms, and nature of human injustice contends that three distinct social systemic sources—oppression, mechanistic dehumanization, and exploitation—produce unique and/or overlapping social mechanisms, which create systematic inequality in opportunities to address universal human needs in culturally specific ways, thus producing the nature of the human injustice theorized here: wrongfully unmet needs and serious harm.

Not Just Disgust: Fear and Anger Also Relate to Intergroup Dehumanization

One of the most extreme expressions of prejudice is likening groups to non-human beings. Previous research relates disgust to dehumanization of social groups. However, prior studies have not examined other negative emotions in relation to dehumanization. We examined whether three emotions – anger, disgust, and fear – are associated with dehumanization of social groups. In Experiments 1 and 2 we tested these relationships measuring reactions to real groups. We found that all three emotions were uniquely related to animalistic and humanity-denial dehumanization, but only fear was related to mechanistic dehumanization. Using an orthogonal emotion grid measure in Experiment 3, we showed anger to play a primary role in dehumanization among a variety of target groups. Finally, in Experiment 4 we manipulated whether a novel group was abnormal or harmful, and found that both groups elicited more dehumanization than the control group; however, the harmful group elicited dehumanization mediated by anger and the abnormal group elicited dehumanization mediated by disgust. From this evidence, we argue that other emotions besides disgust play an important part in the dehumanization of outgroups.

Women as Animals, Women as Objects: Evidence for Two Forms of Objectification.

Women are objectified through overt sexualization and through a focus on physical appearance, but empirical research has not yet made this distinction. In three studies, we found evidence consistent with the hypothesis that although both forms of objectification strip women of their humanness, there are unique dehumanizing signatures associated with each. When women were objectified by a focus on their sexual features or functions ( sexual objectification), they were perceived as lacking uniquely human attributes (i.e., animalistic dehumanization). Conversely, when women were objectified by an emphasis on their beauty or physical appearance ( appearance-focused objectification), they were perceived as lacking human nature (i.e., mechanistic dehumanization). In Study 3, we also examined an outcome associated with women's risk of harm and found that mechanistic dehumanization, in response to appearance-focused objectification, uniquely promoted the perception that a woman was less capable of feeling pain. Implications for objectification research are discussed.

Animalizing the disadvantaged, mechanizing the wealthy: The convergence of socio-economic status and attribution of humanity.

Differences between groups in socio-economic status (SES) are becoming more salient nowadays. In this context, we examined the animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization that both low and high-SES groups may experience respectively by conducting three studies. In study 1, we manipulated the SES of two fictitious groups (low vs. high-SES) and measured the humanity ascribed to them. Results showed that the low-SES group was animalized in comparison with the high-SES group, which was mechanized. In study 2, we manipulated the humanity of two fictitious groups by describing them as animals or machines and measured the perceived SES of the groups. Participants tended to attribute lower SES to the group described as animals and higher SES to the group described as machines. Finally, in study 3, we used an Implicit Association Test to replicate the results of studies 1 and 2. Taken together, these studies show that low-SES groups are considered as animal-like whereas high-SES groups are seen as robot-like. We discuss the implications of these findings in relation to the justification of income inequality within our society.

Imagined intergroup contact promotes support for human rights through increased humanization

AbstractDehumanization concerns the denial of others' human uniqueness (animalistic dehumanization) or human nature (mechanistic dehumanization). Imagined intergroup contact has been suggested to be an effective technique for reducing dehumanization. We examined whether this intervention might primarily work by increasing the type of humanness the group specifically lacks. Study 1 revealed that after imagining contact with an animalized out‐group (i.e., Gypsy people), participants attributed higher levels of human uniqueness. Study 2 replicated this finding, eliminating improved intergroup attitudes as an alternative explanation. Further, it demonstrated that imagined contact increased support for human rights, and that this was mediated by increased adscription of human uniqueness. Study 3 confirmed previous evidence by showing that after imagining contact with a mechanized out‐group (i.e., Japanese people), participants attributed higher levels of human nature that explains support for human rights. Overall, imagined contact specifically works at increasing the type of humanness the group is typically denied.

Cognitive, Emotional, and Motivational Consequences of Dehumanization

In the current experiments, we examined the cognitive, emotional, and motivational consequences of being mechanistically (Study 1) and animal-istically (Study 2) dehumanized, and explored the moderating role of self-esteem in these effects. In Study 1, receiving dehumanization evaluations in the mechanistic form produced cognitive deconstruction and feelings of sadness above and beyond negative evaluations. In Study 2, when receiving dehumanization evaluations in the animalistic form (vs. being evaluated negatively), participants reported higher levels of emotions related to sadness and shame. The effect of self-esteem was inconsistent across the two studies. It moderated the effects of mechanistic dehumanization on sadness and aggressive tendency, in that higher self-esteem individuals experienced more sadness and reported higher levels of aggressive tendency after being dehumanized than those lower in self-esteem. However, it mitigated the effects of animalistic dehumanization on cognitive deconstruction. Implications of these results are discussed.

Perception of mind and dehumanization: Human, animal, or machine?

Dehumanization is reached through several approaches, including the attribute-based model of mind perception and the metaphor-based model of dehumanization. We performed two studies to find different (de)humanized images for three targets: Professional people, Evil people, and Lowest of the low. In Study 1, we examined dimensions of mind, expecting the last two categories to be dehumanized through denial of agency (Lowest of the low) or experience (Evil people), compared with humanized targets (Professional people). Study 2 aimed to distinguish these targets using metaphors. We predicted that Evil and Lowest of the low targets would suffer mechanistic and animalistic dehumanization, respectively; our predictions were confirmed, but the metaphor-based model nuanced these results: animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization were shown as overlapping rather than independent. Evil persons were perceived as "killing machines" and "predators." Finally, Lowest of the low were not animalized but considered human beings. We discuss possible interpretations.

Deumanizzazione del paziente oncologico nei contesti medici

In this paper the authors explore the presence of infrahumanization effects when the target is cancer patients. Participants were physicians and nurses working in cancer institutes or oncology departments of hospitals. Participants were asked to judge their own category and that of cancer patients on a set of traits. Uniquely human (e.g., rationality, reasoning) and non-uniquely human traits (e.g., impulse, instinct) were used. Patients were also judged on traits expressing the essence of human nature, such as emotionality and relational capacities. The denial of traits of human nature leads to a type of dehumanization, that is called mechanistic dehumanization. Findings show that both physicians and nurses assign the unique features of human category less to patients than to health professionals (infrahumanization effect). In contrast, effects of mechanistic dehumanization were not revealed. In the discussion, the authors examine the potential consequences of cancer patients’ infrahumanization on the therapeutic relationship and treatment effectiveness.

Dehumanization of older people: The evaluation of hostile work environments.

This research examined how people judge hostile work environments in which members of a work setting derogate other workers because they are older and presumed to be incompetent based on a psycholegal model incorporating negative affect and dehumanization (Wiener, Gervais, Brnjic, & Nuss, 2014). Specifically, we conducted a study in which a national sample of community participants read a scenario in which an interviewer did or did not derogate an older worker in a work interview. Respondents predicted affect (negative and positive), rated dehumanization (animalistic and mechanistic), and assessed hostile work environment (legal and impact). Consistent with hypotheses, derogation of the older worker caused more negative affect, more animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization, and more hostile work environment perceptions. Further, consistent with the mechanisms posited by our psycholegal model, path analysis revealed that negative affect and mechanistic dehumanization explained the relation between age derogation and hostile work environment judgments. The paper ends with a discussion of implications for organizations, law, and psychology, as well as directions for future research.

Human-itarian aid? Two forms of dehumanization and willingness to help after natural disasters

The present research explores the distinct effects of animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization on willingness to help natural disaster victims. We examined Japanese and Haitians, two national groups recently struck by earthquakes. We showed that Italian participants differently dehumanized the two outgroups: Japanese were attributed low human nature (dehumanized as automata), whereas Haitians were attributed low human uniqueness (dehumanized as animal-like). Ninety participants were then randomly assigned to the Japanese or Haitian target group condition. Mediation analyses showed that animalistic dehumanization decreased willingness to help Haitians, whereas mechanistic dehumanization decreased willingness to help Japanese, even when controlling for attitudes. Importantly, reduced empathy explained the effects of both forms of dehumanization on intergroup helping.

Dehumanization in children: The link with moral disengagement in bullying and victimization

The current study explored subtle dehumanization-the denial of full humanness-in children, using distinctions of forms (i.e., animalistic vs. mechanistic) and social targets (i.e., friends vs. non-friends). In addition, the link between dehumanization and moral disengagement in bullying and victimization was investigated. Participants were 800 children (7-12 years old) from third to fifth grade classrooms. Subtle animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization toward friends and non-friends were measured with the new Juvenile Dehumanization Measure. Results showed that animalistic dehumanization was more common than mechanistic dehumanization and that non-friends were dehumanized more than friends. The highest levels of dehumanization were found in animalistic form toward non-friends and the lowest levels in mechanistic form toward friends. Both moral disengagement and animalistic dehumanization toward friends were positively associated with bullying. However, moral disengagement was negatively associated with victimization, whereas both animalistic and mechanistic dehumanization toward non-friends were positively associated with victimization. The current findings indicate that children are able to distinguish different forms and targets of dehumanization and that dehumanization plays a distinct role from moral disengagement in bullying and victimization.

Interpersonal control, dehumanization, and violence: A self-determination theory perspective

Interpersonally controlling approaches are often used to keep individuals in line, ostensibly in order to create a safer, more civilized society. Ironically, emerging research findings indicate that when people feel controlled, they often respond by behaving in a less civilized, more antisocial manner (Gagné, 2003; Knee, Neighbors, & Vietor, 2001; Mask, Blanchard, Amiot, & Deshaies, 2005; McHoskey, 1999). The present research investigation explored whether a process of mechanistic dehumanization might help to explain the observed relation between interpersonal control and antisocial behavior, specifically with regard to tendencies toward violence. The results indicated that a significant relation between interpersonal control and tendencies toward interpersonal violence was partially mediated by perceived mechanistic dehumanization.