Mechanisms Of Intergenerational Transmission Research Articles

Disentangling genetic and social pathways of the intergenerational transmission of cognitive ability – A nuclear twin family study

As cognitive ability accounts for large parts of the intergenerational transmission of advantage, it is crucial to understand the mechanisms driving the intergenerational transmission of cognitive ability itself. Social mobility research usually focuses on social mechanisms of intergenerational transmission. For the case of cognitive ability, this means that parental cognitive ability affects offspring ability via the family environment. However, parents do not only provide resources, but also pass their genes to their children. As social and genetic transmission are not mutually exclusive, it is crucial to disentangle the contribution of both to the intergenerational transmission of cognitive ability. Using data from the German TwinLife survey, we apply a nuclear twin family design to address this question. Using data from all four twin birth cohorts, covering an age range of 5–25 years, we further explore whether the contribution of both mechanisms varies over the life course. For all four cohorts, in any of the estimated models, social transmission is very small and not significant. Genetic transmission, in turn, seems to be the primary mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of cognitive ability and becomes increasingly important with age. Our findings challenge conventional social mobility perspectives, stressing the need to incorporate genetic transmission into sociological research for a more comprehensive understanding of intergenerational transmission of advantage.

Interpersonal population diversity in the bank boardroom and corporate misconduct

PurposeThis research empirically establishes that the interpersonal population diversity of executive board members partly explains the differences in financial misconduct across US banks. It advances the hypothesis that heterogeneity in the composition of an interpersonal population and diverse traits of board members, originating from the prehistoric course of the exodus of Homo sapiens from East Africa tens of thousands of years ago, is an important factor explaining the effectiveness of executive board monitoring with respect to a bank engaging in financial misconduct. The underlying intuition is that population-fragmented societies, characterized by mistrust, preference heterogeneity and corruption, find it difficult to sustain collective integrity action.Design/methodology/approachEmploying a panel of US banks from 1998 to 2019 we find that adding directors from countries with different levels of interpersonal population diversity is positively associated with financial misconduct as measured by enforcement and class action litigation against banks by the main regulatory agencies. Furthermore, we document that the more population-diverse bank boards are more likely to commit misconduct, consistent with a mechanism of inter-generational transmission of cultural norms of mistrust and non-cooperation.FindingsWe find that adding directors from countries with different levels of interpersonal population diversity is positively associated with financial misconduct as measured by enforcement and class action litigation against banks by the main regulatory agencies. These results are robust to controlling for bank-specific variables, including other board characteristics, and to the use of instrumental variables.Practical implicationsThe findings suggest that reducing financial misconduct by banks likely requires reducing the interpersonal population diversity of banks’ executive boards.Originality/valueWe show how bank boards with different interpersonal population diversity impact the likelihood of engaging in misconduct provides evidence of the microeconomic effects of interpersonal population diversity. We show the negative results of diversity that they can have on the management of a firm given that populated diverse boards are more likely to lead to higher levels of misconduct. Our evidence reveals that banks having interpersonal population fragmented boards are more likely to commit misconduct given the cultural norms of mistrust and the lack of societal cohesiveness.

Constructing the ‘zero family’: Breaking the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment from the perspective of care-experienced parents

BackgroundSeveral studies have explored the mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment (ITCM), which also involves care-experienced parents; however, what is less explored is their direct experience, especially regarding resilience processes. ObjectiveDeveloping the theoretical framework of ITCM through an exploration of the perspectives of those who appear to have interrupted it. Participants and settingA sample of 27 Italian parents - with experience in foster and/or residential care - who have broken the ITCM, completed an in-depth interview between May 2021 and February 2023. MethodsA Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2014) approach was adopted in carrying out the interviews, which focused on daily experiences of parenting (Morgan, 2011) and on factors perceived as supporting ITCM interruption. Data were analyzed using open, focused and theoretical coding; the analysis itself was discussed with a consultive board of care-experienced parents. ResultsThe study highlighted important aspects that, from parents' perspectives, play a role in breaking ITCM: for instance, how their parenting experience is a challenging process of constructing what they term ‘zero family’. Furthermore, starting a family from scratch requires coming to terms with the past, re-imagining oneself as a parent, and managing the complexity of everyday life despite such tensions. ConclusionsThe results throw light on how the transition to parenthood itself is perceived as a significant developmental opportunity for the interruption of ITCM. However, many problems persist, foregrounding the relevance of discussing possible supports to strengthen parenting agency and skills. Such a discussion should therefore be increasingly informed by ecological approaches and parents' perspectives (also on everyday practices and life contexts), thus avoiding the risk of pathologizing responses.

The Mood and Resilience in Offspring (MARIO) project: a longitudinal cohort study among offspring of parents with and without a mood disorder

BackgroundOne of the most robust risk factors for developing a mood disorder is having a parent with a mood disorder. Unfortunately, mechanisms explaining the transmission of mood disorders from one generation to the next remain largely elusive. Since timely intervention is associated with a better outcome and prognosis, early detection of intergenerational transmission of mood disorders is of paramount importance. Here, we describe the design of the Mood and Resilience in Offspring (MARIO) cohort study in which we investigate: 1. differences in clinical, biological and environmental (e.g., psychosocial factors, substance use or stressful life events) risk and resilience factors in children of parents with and without mood disorders, and 2. mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of mood disorders via clinical, biological and environmental risk and resilience factors.MethodsMARIO is an observational, longitudinal cohort study that aims to include 450 offspring of parents with a mood disorder (uni- or bipolar mood disorders) and 100-150 offspring of parents without a mood disorder aged 10-25 years. Power analyses indicate that this sample size is sufficient to detect small to medium sized effects. Offspring are recruited via existing Dutch studies involving patients with a mood disorder and healthy controls, for which detailed clinical, environmental and biological data of the index-parent (i.e., the initially identified parent with or without a mood disorder) is available. Over a period of three years, four assessments will take place, in which extensive clinical, biological and environmental data and data on risk and resilience are collected through e.g., blood sampling, face-to-face interviews, online questionnaires, actigraphy and Experience Sampling Method assessment. For co-parents, information on demographics, mental disorder status and a DNA-sample are collected.DiscussionThe MARIO cohort study is a large longitudinal cohort study among offspring of parents with and without mood disorders. A unique aspect is the collection of granular data on clinical, biological and environmental risk and resilience factors in offspring, in addition to available parental data on many similar factors. We aim to investigate the mechanisms underlying intergenerational transmission of mood disorders, which will ultimately lead to better outcomes for offspring at high familial risk.

The Russian family as a guardian and translator of traditional national values

Introduction. The article analyzes the advantages of the family in the formation and intergenerational continuity of basic national values and the gradual, step-by-step development of their youth. The article uses the experience of assessing traditional values by students of Nizhny Novgorod schools during family-patriotic contests, as well as the results of the author's sociological research among schoolchildren on the degree of their commitment to Russian values.Materials and Methods. The authors of the article relied on the analysis of primary and secondary sociological data. In general, general scientific research methods were applied (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, comparative historical and dialectical methods).Results. The successful implementation of the intergenerational transmission of values by the family was negatively affected by the cardinal transformations of Russian society in the 90s of the XX century. The attempt to revise the basic Russian traditional values in favor of liberalization through familiarization with the Western way of life (imposing the priority of values on the psychology of mass consumption society) of the majority of Russians led to a deepening of the crisis state of the institution of the family and society as a whole. Meanwhile, the Russian family, possessing a number of qualities (one of which is a sense of healthy conservatism), was able to preserve the best practices of broadcasting intergenerational values. However, the thoughtless policy of the reformers of the "Yeltsin's hard times" did not pass by without a trace. The analysis of secondary and primary sociological data has shown that many traditional Russian spiritual and moral values are insufficiently formed. Let's denote two "pain points":1. The negative attitude of the majority of young men (59.6%) to the statement that "Conscription is an obligatory stage in life for every man is extremely alarming." There is a crisis of fatherhood as the main element in the functioning of the mechanism of intergenerational transmission of values. 2. The popularity of so-called "alternative" forms of family structure among young people is alarming. An analysis of the data on gender identity revealed discrepancies that draw attention to themselves. Thus, boys (71.8%) are more confident that "A family is a union of a man and a woman, and not Parents No. 1 and No. 2" than girls (53.6%). This is an occasion for further research and explanation of the reason for the greater commitment of young men to traditional family values than girls.Discussion and Conclusions. Theoretical and methodological analysis of the state of modern Russian society and the family has shown that the actualization of public attention on traditional Russian spiritual and moral values, their legislative consolidation in various decrees and by-laws and their practical implementation has a positive effect on the system of education of younger youth in general. The results of the author's sociological research indicate, for the most part, the formation of traditional Russian spiritual and moral values in the youth consciousness. Thus, it can be argued that Russian society has not lost the ability of intergenerational transmission of basic Russian values, its mental and cultural code.

Maternal or Paternal Antibiotics? Intergenerational Transmission and Reproductive Toxicity in Zebrafish.

Despite the known direct toxicity of various antibiotics to aquatic organisms, the potential chronic impact through intergenerational transmission on reproduction remains elusive. Here, we exposed zebrafish to a mixture of 15 commonly consumed antibiotics at environmentally relevant concentrations (1 and 100 μg L-1) with a cross-mating design. A high accumulation of antibiotics was detected in the ovary (up to 904.58 ng g-1) and testis (up to 1704.49 ng g-1) of F0 fish. The transmission of antibiotics from the F0 generation to the subsequent generation (F1 offspring) was confirmed with a transmission rate (ki) ranging from 0.11 to 2.32. The maternal transfer of antibiotics was significantly higher, relative to paternal transfer, due to a greater role of transmission through ovarian enrichment and oviposition compared to testis enrichment. There were similar impairments in reproductive and developmental indexes on F1 eggs found following both female and male parental exposure. Almost all antibiotics were eliminated in F2 eggs in comparison to F1 eggs. However, there were still reproductive and developmental toxic responses observed in F2 fish, suggesting that antibiotic concentration levels were not the only criterion for evaluating the toxic effects for each generation. These findings unveil the intergenerational transmission mechanism of antibiotics in fish models and underscore their potential and lasting impact in aquatic environments.

When Dad's Stress Gets under Kid's Skin-Impacts of Stress on Germline Cargo and Embryonic Development.

Multiple lines of evidence suggest that paternal psychological stress contributes to an increased prevalence of neuropsychiatric and metabolic diseases in the progeny. While altered paternal care certainly plays a role in such transmitted disease risk, molecular factors in the germline might additionally be at play in humans. This is supported by findings on changes to the molecular make up of germ cells and suggests an epigenetic component in transmission. Several rodent studies demonstrate the correlation between paternal stress induced changes in epigenetic modifications and offspring phenotypic alterations, yet some intriguing cases also start to show mechanistic links in between sperm and the early embryo. In this review, we summarise efforts to understand the mechanism of intergenerational transmission from sperm to the early embryo. In particular, we highlight how stress alters epigenetic modifications in sperm and discuss the potential for these modifications to propagate modified molecular trajectories in the early embryo to give rise to aberrant phenotypes in adult offspring.

A study of the mechanism for intergenerational transmission of gender roles in single-parent families

The divorce rate in China is rising yearly, and the concept of marriage is changing, triggering many social topics related to single parents. Among them, gender-awareness education for children in single-parent families is particularly worthy of attention, as there has been insufficient exploration of how parents transfer their gender role concepts to their children. This study conducted in-depth interviews with 58 single parents and children from 29 families in Suzhou and constructed the mechanism for intergenerational transmission of gender roles in single-parent families based on grounded theory. It found that single parents' gender stereotypes, the starting point of the intergenerational transmission mechanism, have been diluted. It affords them a more enlightened attitude towards child-rearing style, and they expect more equality in the gender role of their offspring. However, in some parents' actual parenting process, when the children's sexualization behaviours exceed their acceptance range, they will communicate with children in an authoritative and didactic way to “correct” the children's behaviour. In addition to direct verbal instruction, parents' expectations of their children's gender roles will be implicitly conveyed through various parent-child interactions in daily life to affect the formation of their children's gender roles. In the intergenerational transmission of gender roles, external people (such as grandparents, teachers and peer groups) have horizontal socialisation effects on children to modify or strengthen the results of gender education from their parents. Under the comprehensive influence of the above factors, the children's gender roles are finally determined. These studies expand previous theories and studies and have significant theoretical and practical implications.

Intergenerational Transmission of Psychological Flexibility: The Mediating Role of Parenting Style and the Moderating Role of Teacher Support.

In this study, parents' psychological flexibility scale, children's psychological flexibility scale, parenting style scale and teacher support scale were used to explore the intergenerational transmission mechanism of psychological flexibility. The results showed that: (1) parents' psychological flexibility significantly predicted children's psychological flexibility; (2) authoritative parenting style and authoritarian parenting style partially mediated the relationship between parents' psychological flexibility and children's psychological flexibility; (3) Teacher support not only moderated the effect of authoritative and authoritarian parenting on children's psychological flexibility, but also moderated the mediating effect of authoritative and authoritarian parenting style between parents' psychological flexibility and children's psychological flexibility.

Parental Influence and Intergenerational Transmission of Religious Belief, Attitudes, and Practices: Recent Evidence from the United States

A traditionally salient topic of empirical investigation in the sociology of religion, this paper seeks to offer a recent investigation into the intergenerational transmission of religion and the parental forms of religious engagement that predict adult engagement with religion. The study of this paper explores the intergenerational transmission of religion, focusing on the parental forms of religious identity and engagement that influence religious identity, beliefs, and practices in adulthood. By analyzing the 2018 GSS dataset in the United States with multiple regression analyses, I found strong parental and childhood influences on adult religiosity, religious service attendance, and belief in God. Indeed, this engagement often mirrors parental engagement for these variables. However, while paternal religious identity often predicts these religious variables, I found that the religious identity and engagement of parents generally do not predict religious identity in adulthood. Ultimately, while these results generally show strong predictive mechanisms of intergenerational transmission, they also illustrate that these relationships are variably dependent on the form of parental and adult religious engagement, and which parent participates or is associated with that engagement.

Family involvement and secondary traumatization in Holocaust survivor families: An actor-partner interdependence model.

The study aimed to examine the interpersonal relationships between family involvement (i.e., emotional and behavioral strategies that underscore family members' well-being and familial legacy) and secondary traumatization (i.e., symptoms of distress resulting from close contact with a traumatized individual) in Holocaust survivors and comparison families. We assessed levels of family involvement and secondary traumatization in children and grandchildren of survivors (Holocaust G2 and G3) and comparisons. Next, we examined whether there are within and between generation relationships between family involvement and secondary traumatization (i.e., G2's family involvement affects G3's secondary traumatization and vice versa). The sample included 92 Holocaust G2-G3 dyads and 67 equivalent comparison dyads (comparison G2 and G3 of European origin, whose parents or grandparents were not in Nazi/pro-Nazi dominated countries). Participants answered questionaries on background characteristics, family involvement, and secondary traumatization. Secondary traumatization was significantly higher among Holocaust G2 and G3 than comparison G2 and G3, respectively. Family involvement was significantly higher among Holocaust G2 than comparison G2. An Actor-Partner Interdependence model showed that participants who reported greater family involvement reported higher secondary traumatization in all families (i.e., an actor effect). A significant partner effect was found only in Holocaust families. In these families, greater family involvement in one generation was related to higher secondary traumatization in the other generation. The findings suggest a unique interpersonal mechanism of intergenerational transmission of trauma in Holocaust families that appears to affect both generations, which may help design multigenerational interventions with survivor families, focusing on family involvement. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Intergenerational longitudinal associations between parental reading/musical traits, infants' auditory processing, and later phonological awareness skills.

The intergenerational transmission of language/reading skills has been demonstrated by evidence reporting that parental literacy abilities contribute to the prediction of their offspring's language and reading skills. According to the "Intergenerational Multiple Deficit Model," literacy abilities of both parents are viewed as indicators of offspring's liability for literacy difficulties, since parents provide offspring with genetic and environmental endowment. Recently, studies focusing on the heritability of musical traits reached similar conclusions. The "Musical Abilities, Pleiotropy, Language, and Environment (MAPLE)" framework proposed that language/reading and musical traits share a common genetic architecture, and such shared components have an influence on the heritable neural underpinnings of basic-level skills underlying musical and language traits. Here, we investigate the intergenerational transmission of parental musical and language-related (reading) abilities on their offspring's neural response to a basic auditory stimulation (neural intermediate phenotype) and later phonological awareness skills, including in this complex association pattern the mediating effect of home environment. One-hundred and seventy-six families were involved in this study. Through self-report questionnaires we assessed parental reading abilities and musicality, as well as home literacy and musical environment. Offspring were involved in a longitudinal study: auditory processing was measured at 6 months of age by means of a Rapid Auditory Processing electrophysiological paradigm, and phonological awareness was assessed behaviorally at 5 years of age. Results reveal significant correlations between parents' reading skills and musical traits. Intergenerational associations were investigated through mediation analyses using structural equation modeling. For reading traits, the results revealed that paternal reading was indirectly associated with children's phonological awareness skills via their electrophysiological MisMatch Response at 6 months, while maternal reading was directly associated with children's phonological awareness. For musical traits, we found again that paternal musicality, rather than maternal characteristics, was associated with children's phonological phenotypes: in this case, the association was mediated by musical environment. These results provide some insight about the intergenerational pathways linking parental reading and musical traits, neural underpinnings of infants' auditory processing and later phonological awareness skills. Besides shedding light on possible intergenerational transmission mechanisms, this study may open up new perspectives for early intervention based on environmental enrichment.

Multigenerational adversity impacts on human gut microbiome composition and socioemotional functioning in early childhood

Adversity exposures in the prenatal and postnatal period are associated with an increased risk for psychopathology, which can be perpetuated across generations. Nonhuman animal research highlights the gut microbiome as a putative biological mechanism underlying such generational risks. In a sample of 450 mother-child dyads living in Singapore, we examined associations between three distinct adversity exposures experienced across two generations-maternal childhood maltreatment, maternal prenatal anxiety, and second-generation children's exposure to stressful life events-and the gut microbiome composition of second-generation children at 2 y of age. We found distinct differences in gut microbiome profiles linked to each adversity exposure, as well as some nonaffected microbiome features (e.g., beta diversity). Remarkably, some of the microbial taxa associated with concurrent and prospective child socioemotional functioning shared overlapping putative functions with those affected by adversity, suggesting that the intergenerational transmission of adversity may have a lasting impact on children's mental health via alterations to gut microbiome functions. Our findings open up a new avenue of research into the underlying mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of mental health risks and the potential of the gut microbiome as a target for intervention.

Parenting during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Insecure or unresolved attachment representation is a risk factor for harmful parenting behavior

AbstractBackgroundThe current COVID‐19‐pandemic confronted a large number of young families with stressors. For mothers with a history of childhood maltreatment (CM), the distress during the current pandemic added to their already increased risk for a less sensitive, maltreating parenting behavior.ObjectiveThis study aims to investigate whether maternal attachment representation mediates the relationship between maternal CM experiences and changes in parenting behavior during the pandemic.MethodAs a part of a longitudinal study, mothers' experiences of CM and their attachment status were assessed. For the present study, 92 mothers (mean age: 38.14 years, SD = 4.08; attachment representation: 36% secure, 64% insecure and unresolved) completed an online SARS‐CoV‐2‐pandemic survey assessing their parenting behavior since the beginning of the pandemic.ResultsThe odds of an insecure maternal attachment representation in adulthood increased with higher levels of CM load. Mediation analyses revealed that maternal attachment representation fully explained the relationship between maternal CM load to changes in sensitive, endangering, and overall parenting quality.ConclusionsCM has lasting effects on maternal adult attachment representations. Mothers' attachment representations contribute to a further understanding of intergenerational transmission mechanisms of CM later in adulthood through a more endangered parenting approach in challenging times.ImplicationsThe results of this study should be considered in the development of programs offered to families facing stressful circumstances. In particular, we recommend increased implementation of telephone‐ or web‐based programs.

Parental education and child health: The exploration of the cross‐gender intergenerational transmission mechanism

AbstractThis paper analyses the causal effects of different levels of mother's and father's education on child general and mental health, by applying a fixed effects instrumental variable panel data estimator with selection to nationally represented longitudinal data of over 13,000 observations in the United Kingdom from 2008 to 2019. The results reveal a negative association between mother's education and boys' mental health, potentially driven by relative rather than absolute levels of education between parents. Differences in educational attainment between parents signal unequal power and different values, which inhibits conflict resolution and commitment, leading to higher likelihood of breaking up, which in turn may negatively affect child mental health. On the contrary, no evidence is found of causal links between different levels of mother's and father's education on child health, indicating the relevance of potential environmental factors in the intergenerational transmission mechanism. This calls for more co‐ordination of educational interventions with other economic policies, also taking economic cycle into account.

The phenomenon and mechanism of intergenerational transmission of pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors

The phenomenon and mechanism of intergenerational transmission of pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors

Жизненные ценности и гражданская идентичность старшеклассников

The paper presents the results of a research project implemented in 2020–2021 at the micro level of political analysis in Krasnodar using survey and expert sessions. The interpretation of empirical data was carried out within the theoretical scope of the concepts of civic identity, theories of values and generational theory. Life values of school students are presented as va­lues-ideals and values-goals, and their significance is determined. The paper characterized cognitive, emotional and behavioural levels of civic identity of high school students and revealed the ideal image of a citizen. The school and the Internet are considered as actors of civic socia­lization. Conclusions were drawn about the need to reconsider the social role of young people in a digital society, to form a new view of the factors and mechanisms of intergenerational transmission, to develop and implement a targeted youth policy. Four university students and five high school students participated in all stages of the project, gaining experience in conducting empirical research and presenting the results.

Social representations about the family in intergenerational transmission: a teoretical aspect

The article examines the issues of intergenerational transmission in the context of changing social representations about the family. It is shown a theoretical review of research on the topic of social representations about the family and the mechanisms of intergenerational transmission. The coincidence of a person’s values with the values of his group contributes to an increased sense of well-being and strengthens ties in the group, in this case, in the family. As a result of research, certain differences and similarities in the hierarchy of values of different generations are highlighted. The family occupies a place in the list of the main values.

Familial concentration of crime in a digital era: Criminal behavior among family members of cyber offenders

A vast and growing body of research has shown that crime tends to run in families. However, previous studies focused only on traditional crimes and research on familial risk factors for cyber offending is very scarce. To address this gap in the literature, the present study examines the criminal behavior of the family members of a sample of cyber offenders prosecuted in the Netherlands. The sample consists of 979 cyber offenders prosecuted for computer trespassing between 2001 and 2018, and two matched groups of 979 traditional offenders and 979 non-offenders. Judicial information and kinship data from Dutch Statistics were used to measure criminal behavior among family members. Both traditional offenders and cyber offenders were found to be more likely to have criminal fathers, mothers, and siblings than non-offenders. Additional analyses, however, showed different patterns between cyber offenders who were only prosecuted for cyber offenses and those who also committed traditional crimes. While the former group of cyber offenders were similar to non-offenders in terms of family offending, the latter group of cyber offenders were more similar to traditional offenders. Overall, these results suggest that the traditional mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of crime can only partially explain cybercrime involvement.

Maternal adherence to healthy lifestyle and risk of depressive symptoms in the offspring: mediation by offspring lifestyle.

Adherence to healthy lifestyles can be beneficial for depression among adults, but the intergenerational impact of maternal healthy lifestyles on offspring depressive symptoms is unknown. In total, 10 368 mothers in Nurses' Health Study II and 13 478 offspring in the Growing Up Today Study were paired. Maternal and offspring healthy lifestyles were defined as a composite score including a healthy diet, normal body mass index (BMI), never-smoking, light-to-moderate consumption of alcohol, and regular moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Maternal lifestyles were assessed during their offspring's childhood. Offspring depressive symptoms were repeatedly assessed five times using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-10 (CESD-10); the offspring were between the ages of 14 and 30 when the first CESD-10 was assessed. Covariates included maternal variables (age at baseline, race/ethnicity, antidepressant use, pregnancy complications, etc.) and offspring age and sex. Children of mothers with the healthiest lifestyle had significantly fewer depressive symptoms (a 0.30 lower CESD-10 score, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.09-0.50) in comparison with children of mothers with the least healthy lifestyle. The association was only found significant in female offspring but not in males. For individual maternal lifestyle factors, a normal BMI, never-smoking, and adherence to regular physical activity were independently associated with fewer depressive symptoms among the offspring. The association between maternal healthy lifestyles and offspring depressive symptoms was mediated by offspring's healthy lifestyles (mediation effect: 53.2%, 95% CI 15.8-87.3). Our finding indicates the potential mechanism of intergenerational transmission of healthy lifestyles to reduce the risk of depressive symptoms in offspring.