Reaction Time Measures Research Articles

THE EFFECTS OF SPATIAL ATTENTION AND EMOTIONS ON GLOBAL AND LOCAL PROCESSES

Present study is designed to investigate modulations in global-local processes by emotions and spatial cues. Aim was to investigate the effect of emotions on global-local bias and to examine if symbolic cues modulate these processes by simultaneously presenting the cue and emotional picture. Using the Navon (1977) figures, participants were presented with (in)congruent displays formed by the (in)congruency between the global and local features. Before presenting the displays, emotional (Experiment 1A: positive, Experiment 1B: negative) or neutral picture was presented simultaneously with global, local or neutral symbolic arrow cues, used as spatial cues to bias attention in global and local levels respectively. Participants were then asked to choose one stimulus out of three options. Chosen stimulus is expected to indicate the bias of participants. Reaction time and global-local preference measurements were analyzed. Reaction time was not modulated by any of the factors. The global/local bias measurements revealed a shift from local to global bias in the presence of negative emotion. The findings reveal information on global and local processes by adapting new methodological approach. Keywords Global and local processes, positive and negative emotions, global cue, local cue, global-local preference

Human-robot collision predictor for flexible assembly

<p class="Abstract"><span lang="EN-US">The performance of human–robot collaboration can be improved in some assembly tasks when a robot emulates the effective coordination behaviours observed in human teams. However, this close collaboration could cause collisions, resulting in delays in the initial scheduling. Besides the commonly used acoustic or visual signals, vibrations from a mobile device can be used to communicate the intention of a collaborative robot (cobot). In this paper, the communication time of a virtual reality and depth camera-based system is presented in which vibration signals are used to alert the user of a probable collision with a UR5 cobot. Preliminary tests are carried out on human reaction time and network communication time measurements to achieve an initial picture of the collision predictor system’s performance. Experimental tests are also presented in an assembly task with a three-finger gripper that functions as a flexible assembly device.</span></p>

Does Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older Adults in Motor Cortex Reflect Compensation?

Older adults tend to display greater brain activation in the nondominant hemisphere during even basic sensorimotor responses. It is debated whether this hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults (HAROLD) reflects a compensatory mechanism. Across two independent fMRI experiments involving adult life span human samples (N = 586 and N = 81, approximately half female) who performed right-hand finger responses, we distinguished between these hypotheses using behavioral and multivariate Bayes (MVB) decoding approaches. Standard univariate analyses replicated a HAROLD pattern in motor cortex, but in and out of scanner behavioral results both demonstrated evidence against a compensatory relationship in that reaction time measures of task performance in older adults did not relate to ipsilateral motor activity. Likewise, MVB showed that this increased ipsilateral activity in older adults did not carry additional information, and if anything, combining ipsilateral with contralateral activity patterns reduced action decoding in older adults (at least in experiment 1). These results contradict the hypothesis that HAROLD is compensatory and instead suggest that the age-related ipsilateral hyperactivation is nonspecific, consistent with alternative hypotheses about age-related reductions in neural efficiency/differentiation or interhemispheric inhibition.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT A key goal in the cognitive neuroscience of aging is to provide a mechanistic explanation of how brain–behavior relationships change with age. One interpretation of the common finding that task-based hemispheric activity becomes more symmetrical in older adults is that this shift reflects a compensatory mechanism, with the nondominant hemisphere needing to help out with computations normally performed by the dominant hemisphere. Contrary to this view, our behavioral and brain data indicate that the additional activity in ipsilateral motor cortex in older adults is not reflective of better task performance nor better neural representations of finger actions.

Mapping social exclusion in STEM to men’s implicit bias and women’s career costs

Why are women socially excluded in fields dominated by men? Beyond the barriers associated with any minority group's mere numerical underrepresentation, we theorized that gender stereotypes exacerbate the social exclusion of women in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) workplaces, with career consequences. Although widely discussed, clear evidence of these relationships remains elusive. In a sample of 1,247 STEM professionals who work in teams, we tested preregistered hypotheses that acts of gendered social exclusion are systematically associated with both men's gender stereotypes (Part 1) and negative workplace outcomes for women (Part 2). Combining social network metrics of inclusion and reaction time measures of implicit stereotypes (the tendency to "think STEM, think men"), this study provides unique empirical evidence of the chilly climate women often report experiencing in STEM. Men with stronger implicit gender stereotypes had fewer social ties to female teammates. In turn, women (but not men) with fewer incoming cross-gender social ties reported worse career fit and engagement. Moderated mediation revealed that for women (but not men), cross-gender social exclusion was linked to more negative workplace outcomes via lower social fit. Effects of social exclusion were distinct from respect. We discuss the possible benefits of fostering positive cross-gender social relationships to promote women's professional success in STEM.

Visual sensitivity and reaction time measures show no evidence for purely exogenous object-based attention

Visual sensitivity and reaction time measures show no evidence for purely exogenous object-based attention

Effect of Correlated Color Temperature and S/P-ratio of LED Light Sources on Reaction Time in Off-axis Vision and Mesopic Lighting Levels

ABSTRACT The increasing replacement of traditional lamps by LED technology opens the door to research into visual performance under their multiple possible spectral power distributions. The correlated color temperature and S/P-ratio are considered parameters characterizing the spectrum of a light source. The lack of firm conclusions motivates the analysis in this work of the influence of LED spectrum, which is defined by the correlated color temperature and S/P-ratio, on a representative night-driving task, visual reaction time. A two-channel and four primaries photostimulator was used as set-up for measuring reaction time in off-axis vision, at mesopic illumination conditions and for a range of stimulus contrasts. The experimental conditions included a wide range of correlated color temperatures, ranging from 1870 to 6350 K, and different S/P-ratios for the same temperature. A total of 16 young subjects participated in the experiments. The results show significant shorter reaction times for those conditions in which the spectrum has greater short-wavelength content. This is corroborated by the greater stimulation of rods and S-cones obtained in the calculation of their excitation level. However, the definition of the spectrum using the correlated color temperature and S/P-ratio does not equally define the results obtained. For the same temperature, a higher S/P-ratio provides lower reaction time values, but for the same S/P ratio reaction time is independent of the temperature. LED light sources with high short-wavelength content provide faster response on the basis of a greater excitation of rods and S-cones. The S/P-ratio is the best parameter to justify the effect of spectrum on reaction time, as considers the spectral sensitivity of the visual system in its calculation.

Metrics for quantifying cognitive factors that may underlie individual variation in exoskeleton use

Individual differences in adaptation to exoskeletons have been observed, but are not well understood. Kinematic, kinetic, and physiologic factors are commonly used to assess these systems. Parameters from experimental psychology and gait literature wereadapted to probe the lower extremity perception-cognition-action loop using measures of reaction times, gait task performance, and gait strategy. Parameters were measured in 15 subjects via two tasks: (1) a modified Simon task and (2) a speed-achievement task with secondary go/no-go cues on a self-paced treadmill. Outcome metrics were assessed for significantly different intra- versus inter-subject variability. Reaction time measures from the modified Simon task, as well two speed-achievement metrics and one gait-strategy characteristic we re found to show significant differenc es in intra- versus inter-subject variability. These results suggest that select cognitive factors may differentiate between individuals and be potential predictors for individual variation during exoskeleton system operation.

Does Timbre Modulate Visual Perception? Exploring Crossmodal Interactions

Musical timbre is often described using terms from non-auditory senses, mainly vision and touch; but it is not clear whether crossmodality in timbre semantics reflects multisensory processing or simply linguistic convention. If multisensory processing is involved in timbre perception, the mechanism governing the interaction remains unknown. To investigate whether timbres commonly perceived as “bright-dark” facilitate or interfere with visual perception (darkness-brightness), we designed two speeded classification experiments. Participants were presented consecutive images of slightly varying (or the same) brightness along with task-irrelevant auditory primes (“bright” or “dark” tones) and asked to quickly identify whether the second image was brighter/darker than the first. Incongruent prime-stimulus combinations produced significantly more response errors compared to congruent combinations but choice reaction time was unaffected. Furthermore, responses in a deceptive identical-image condition indicated subtle semantically congruent response bias. Additionally, in Experiment 2 (which also incorporated a spatial texture task), measures of reaction time (RT) and accuracy were used to construct speed-accuracy tradeoff functions (SATFs) in order to critically compare two hypothesized mechanisms for timbre-based crossmodal interactions, sensory response change vs. shift in response criterion. Results of the SATF analysis are largely consistent with the response criterion hypothesis, although without conclusively ruling out sensory change.

Observing changes in human functioning during induced sleep deficiency and recovery periods.

Prolonged periods of sleep restriction seem to be common in the contemporary world. Sleep loss causes perturbations of circadian rhythmicity and degradation of waking alertness as reflected in attention, cognitive efficiency and memory. Understanding whether and how the human brain recovers from chronic sleep loss is important not only from a scientific but also from a public health perspective. In this work we report on behavioral, motor, and neurophysiological correlates of sleep loss in healthy adults in an unprecedented study conducted in natural conditions and comprising 21 consecutive days divided into periods of 4 days of regular life (a baseline), 10 days of chronic partial sleep restriction (30% reduction relative to individual sleep need) and 7 days of recovery. Throughout the whole experiment we continuously measured the spontaneous locomotor activity by means of actigraphy with 1-minute resolution. On a daily basis the subjects were undergoing EEG measurements (64-electrodes with 500 Hz sampling frequency): resting state with eyes open and closed (8 minutes long each) followed by Stroop task lasting 22 minutes. Altogether we analyzed actigraphy (distributions of rest and activity durations), behavioral measures (reaction times and accuracy from Stroop task) and EEG (amplitudes, latencies and scalp maps of event-related potentials from Stroop task and power spectra from resting states). We observed unanimous deterioration in all the measures during sleep restriction. Further results indicate that a week of recovery subsequent to prolonged periods of sleep restriction is insufficient to recover fully. Only one measure (mean reaction time in Stroop task) reverted to baseline values, while the others did not.

The Combined Effects of Alcohol and Benzodiazepines on Driving-Related Neurocognitive Skills: A Systematic Review

Research concerning the combined effects of alcohol and benzodiazepines on driving-related skills is largely inconsistent. Because as many as 88% of benzodiazepine users report the additional consumption of alcohol, this review aims to provide an updated and concise synthesis of the available high-quality research. We searched EBSCOhost, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science until April 1, 2020, for double-blind, placebo-controlled, repeated-measures intervention trials that examined the effects of alcohol (any dose provided as blood alcohol concentration [BAC]) in combination with oral benzodiazepines on neurocognitive tasks related to driving. We identified evidence of a substance and timing-dependent interaction for measures of reaction time, tracking, divided attention, and visual functioning. Administering alcohol in conjunction with or shortly after a benzodiazepine resulted in a stronger interactive effect than when administration occurred further apart. An additive and/or synergistic effect often occurred when a therapeutic dose of benzodiazepine was combined with alcohol at a BAC below .05%. Combined alcohol and benzodiazepine use was associated with significant impairments in driving-related neurocognitive skills. There is a clear need for more high-quality research in this area to better elucidate the mechanisms of alcohol and benzodiazepine interactions. Drivers may be unaware of impairments following the combination of these drugs at legal driving limits. Thus, drivers should be warned to take caution when consuming even small amounts of alcohol while under treatment with benzodiazepines.

Negative self-conscious emotions in women with borderline personality disorder as assessed by an Implicit Association Test.

Shame and guilt are vital in borderline personality disorder (BPD), and previous research using explicit measures has consistently found elevated levels of these self-conscious emotions (SCE) in those with BPD. However, these measures cannot elucidate implicit processes that are equally important, as they guide the perceptions of the self and influence behavioral responses. Thus, we aimed to extend the research on SCE in BPD utilizing an indirect latency-based measure. A total of 29 female inpatients with BPD and 21 healthy women were assessed with a shame and a guilt self-concept Implicit Association Test (IAT). These two tasks use reaction time measurements to determine the relative strengths of associations between the self versus others and shame versus pride and guilt versus innocence. In addition, participants completed questionnaires capturing shame, guilt, and BPD symptoms. Women with BPD displayed significantly more shame- and guilt-prone implicit self-concepts than the control group (d = 1.2 and d = 0.7, respectively). They also scored significantly higher on explicit measures of shame and guilt. Although explicitly and implicitly assessed shame and guilt were strongly associated with borderline pathology, multivariate models indicated that solely self-reported, but not implicitly measured, guilt was consistently related to all BPD outcomes. Shame was only associated with the number of BPD criteria. This study extends previous findings on SCE in BPD, in that women with BPD do not only explicitly conceive themselves as more shame- and guilt-prone but also exhibit implicitly more shame and guilt self-concepts than healthy controls. Our results may hold clinical and therapeutic implications. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

A-101 Reaction Time and Reaction Time Variability with the Brain Gauge Somatosensory Device in Service Members with and without Acute Concussion

Abstract Objective Research has demonstrated reaction time variability (RTV) as a potentially sensitive metric for post-concussion assessments. The Brain Gauge Clinical Metrics battery (BG) device uses tactile sensory stimulation to elicit a response, increasing accuracy to <1 msec versus 30–100 msec in visually-based reaction time (RT) measures. We sought to determine if BG RTV could adequately identify individuals with acute concussion. Methods We administered BG to 98 healthy control service members (SMs) and 64 SMs within 7 days of a medically diagnosed concussion. The battery includes simple RT and repeated simple RT subtests with RT variability (RTV) for each test calculated as the sd of mean RT for each participant. We used t-tests and gamma regression to compare group RT and RTV means. “Cutoffs” based on percentiles of the control group RTV distribution were calculated and the proportion of each group falling below these cutoffs was determined. Results There were statistically significant differences with large effect sizes between groups across all four metrics. The proportion of participants in the concussion group falling below the cutoffs was higher than among controls, with large effect sizes. T-tests and gamma regression showed that group mean RT and RTV differed significantly under multiple distributional assumptions. Conclusions Both RT and RTV using the BG somatosensory device demonstrated the ability to discriminate between healthy control SMs and SMs with acute concussion. This is further evidence that RTV is a sensitive measure for acute concussion and the use of a tactile sensory stimulus may represent an improvement over a visual stimulus.

English

BACKGROUND Information processing has substantial role in performing intellectual activities such as thinking, reasoning, remembering, imagining, or learning. Caffeine being a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant, improves mental performance, especially on alertness, attention, concentration and learning depending on the quantity of intake. In the present study, an attempt was made to study the effect of caffeine on cognitive processing in healthy individuals. METHODS This cross-sectional study was conducted on 50 subjects at Mahatma Gandhi Medical College & Research Institute. Montreal cognitive assessment (MoCA) questionnaire was utilized to assess the level of cognition of each subject. Visual reaction time (VRT), auditory reaction time (ART) and critical fusion frequency (CFF) prior and after consumption of 75 mg of caffeine in 200 ml of milk, pre and post reaction time measurement were taken from the subject to address the difference in reaction time. RESULTS Both visual and auditory reaction time were significantly reduced (P < 0.001) after intake of caffeine. The ability of the subject to appreciate the flickering light stimuli to be steady (critical flicker fusion frequency) had significantly improved to 15 % after caffeine intake. CONCLUSIONS Decrease in visual and auditory reaction and increase in critical flicker fusion frequency values indicate that caffeine increases alertness thereby it may enhance performance efficiency in reasoning, planning, judgment, organizing, concept formation, and problem solving. KEY WORDS Visual Reaction Time, Auditory Reaction Time, MoCA

A Multidisciplinary Comparison of Different Techniques Among Skilled Water Treaders.

In an immersion incident, a person may be required to tread water for extended periods of time in order to survive. Treading water, or maintaining a stable head position above the water surface, can be achieved in several different ways. Determining which treading water techniques are economic (energetically and cognitively) is an important first step in approaching evidence-based water safety instruction. The present study investigated the cognitive and metabolic demands associated with four main techniques for treading water in experienced water treaders. Skilled water treaders (n=21) performed four common treading techniques for 3min each: “running” in the water, “flutter kick” with hands sculling, “upright breaststroke,” and “egg-beater.” Self-reported rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and task load index (TLX) score, as well as objective measures of probe reaction time (PRT; i.e., response to auditory cues while treading), oxygen consumption and heart rate were assessed. The “egg-beater” technique and the “upright breaststroke” technique were linked to significantly lower cognitive and energetic demands compared to the other techniques (VO2: p<0.001 – “Running” M=29.02, SD=7.40/“Flutter kick” M=29.37, SD=8.56, “Breaststroke” M=23.47, SD=7.28, and “Eggbeater” M=23.18, SD=6.31). This study lays the groundwork for future research that may establish the ideal movement behavior in drowning situations and investigate movement instruction to less experienced treaders.

Postural Control and Functional Ankle Stability in Professional and Amateur Skateboarders.

Basic maneuvers in skateboarding, such as the ollie, put the player at high risk for ankle injuries because of the position of the feet required to perform the maneuvers. This study investigated ankle stability and reaction time for the tibialis anterior, fibularis longus, and fibularis brevis in professional and amateur skateboarders. In total, 16 professional and 16 amateur skateboarders were recruited as participants and underwent range of motion assessments, balance testing, and muscle reaction time measurements. The results revealed that professional skateboarders had a significantly smaller inversion angle compared to amateur players, which suggested better joint control and hence greater safety in the former. Balance testing results indicated better balance in professional skateboarders, and healthy skateboarders had better balance than did injured professional and amateur skateboarders. No significant difference in muscle reaction time was observed between amateur and professional skateboarders.

Accuracy of the SWAY Mobile Cognitive Assessment Application.

BackgroundMobile electronic devices have become integral tools in addressing the need for portable assessment of cognitive function following neurocognitive/motor injury. SWAY Medical, Inc., has employed mobile device motion-based technology in the SWAY Cognitive Assessment (SWAY CA) application to assess cognitive function.PurposeThe purpose of this study was to assess whether the SWAY CA application (reaction time, impulse control and inspective time) was able to reliably operate on different mobile devices and operating systems (iOS, Android). The study further sought to assess the validity of the SWAY CA application against the FDA approved ImPACT QT mobile device application.Study DesignOriginal Research, observational study of validity.Methods88 healthy, young adults, 18 to 48 years (mean= 22.09 ± sd=4.47 years) completed four, randomized and counter-balanced, reaction time tests (2- SWAY RT, 2- ImPACT QT) using different operating systems (iOS, Android) of 4 randomly assigned mobile devices.ResultsANOVAs reported the SWAY CA application (reaction time, impulse control, inspection time) operated reliably with iPhone 6S, Samsung Galaxy S9, and iPad Pro 5 mobile devices (p > 0.05), respectively. Google Pixel 3 reliability with SWAY CA application remains undetermined. SWAY CA simple reaction motion measures were in agreement (r = -0.46 to 0.22, p ≤ 0.05) with several ImPACT QT reaction time measures. SWAY CA impulse control and inspection time measures are weakly correlated (r = -0.25 to -0.46, p ≤ 0.05) with five ImPACT QT reaction time measures.ConclusionThe motion-based SWAY CA mobile device application appears to reliably operate when being administered on different mobile devices and software operating systems. Furthermore, the SWAY CA application appears to be comparable to the ImPACT QT and serve as a valid tool for assessing reaction time measures.Level of EvidenceLevel 2b (observational study of validity).

Gender differences in cognitive development in cohorts of young, middle, and older adulthood over 12 years.

Understanding gender differences in human cognitive development may contribute to understanding the gender differences in outcomes in cognitive ageing. However, evaluation of this topic has been hindered by a lack of representative, longitudinal data from different aged cohorts measured on the same cognitive tests. Gender differences in cognitive abilities were evaluated in three population-based cohorts (baseline age-span 20 to 76, 52% female, 94% Caucasian, 5% Asian and 1% other ethnic background, baseline N = 7,485), initially drawn from the electoral role in Australia where voting is compulsory, that were assessed four times over 12 years on measures of verbal memory, processing speed, working memory, verbal ability, and reaction time. Linear mixed models showed that within each cohort, women had better verbal memory and men had better working memory and faster reaction times. Verbal ability and processing speed showed variable gender differences in the young and middle-aged cohorts but no difference in the oldest cohort. In young and middle age, there were no gender differences in rates of change in verbal memory, processing speed, reaction time, verbal ability, or working memory. In old age, the gender differences were only observed in rates of change in verbal memory. Women showed more verbal memory decline between the 8-year and 12-year follow-ups than men, despite retaining higher average memory performance than men. We conclude that from ages 20-76, gender differences in cognitive abilities are stable except for faster memory ageing among women in the eighth decade. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Effect of context on fine fragrance-elicited emotions: Comparison of three experimental methodologies

The European Sensory Network organized an interactive workshop at the 13th Pangborn Sensory Science Symposium, which took place in Edinburgh (Scotland) in July 2019. The aim of the workshop was twofold. First, three different methodological approaches for measuring emotional responses elicited by fine fragrances were compared: biometric, semantic priming, and implicit reaction time. Second, the role of context on the fragrance experience and elicited emotional responses was investigated by showing videos (fragrance advertisements). This Pangborn workshop was interactive and the results of the third measurement were collected from the audience. The results showed that although the semantic priming method proved to be poorly discriminating, the implicit reaction time measurement highlighted a strong effect of advertisements on elicited feelings. Nomade perfume, which was associated with comforted feelings in the blind condition, became associated with adventurous feelings when it was smelled with its advertisement. Biometric measurements provided limited additional output on the elicited feelings, but clearly showed temporal differences, especially when the advertisement was shown to the participants. Interestingly, despite the different target groups of the experiments (i.e., France, USA, Pangborn international audience) and different experimental procedures, the results of the three methods showed similar findings on the two tested perfumes, with Pop perfume being preferred and eliciting more positive emotional responses than Nomade perfume.

Processing Conditional Perfection in Promises and Threats: The Role of Negation, Clause Order and Incentive.

The paper reports on two experiments that investigate whether polarity, clause order and incentive influence derivation of Conditional Perfection in two types of inducements (promises and threats). Both experiments are designed as inference tasks, additionally measuring reaction times to inferences. The paper shows that the derivation of Conditional Perfection is endorsed in both types of inducements. However, the negative consequent bias (i.e. higher rates of Conditional Perfection in conditionals with a negative consequent than in conditionals with an affirmative consequent) and the double negation effect (i.e. slowdown of reaction times to Conditional Perfection with a double negation in a consequent) hold for threats, but not for promises. The paper also reveals a parallel double negation effect (i.e. facilitation of Conditional Perfection in conditionals with negation in both clauses) in threats, but not in promises. Last but not least, the paper demonstrates that the effect of clause order and incentive on the derivation of Conditional Perfection is rather moderate. The paper supports the view that the derivation of Conditional Perfection is not effortful (Van Tiel and Schaeken in Cogn Sci 41:1119-1154, 2016) and has some indirect arguments for treating Conditional Perfection and scalar implicatures as separate phenomena.

Driver's avoidance characteristics to hazardous situations: A driving simulator study

When analyzing the causes of an accident, it is critical to determine whether the driver could have prevented the accident. In previous studies on the reaction times of drivers, the definition and values of reaction times vary, so applying reaction time is difficult. In such analysis, the driver’s reaction time from perception is required to determine whether the driver could have prevented the accident, but past studies are difficult to utilize in accident analysis as reaction time measurements were taken after the occurrence of hazardous situations. In this study, 93 subjects from age groups ranging from 20 s to 40 s participated in an experiment inside a full-scale driving simulator, to determine reaction time values that can be practically applied to accident analysis. A total of 4 hazardous accident situations were reproduced, including driving over the centerline, pedestrian jaywalking, a vehicle cutting in, and intersection traffic signal violation. The Time-To-Collision (TTC) was 2.5 s and the driving speed was set to the common city road speed limits of 60 and 80 km/h. An eye tracker was used to determine the driver’s Saccade Latency (SL) during hazardous situations. Brake Reaction Time from Perception (BRTP), Steer Reaction Time from Perception (SRTP), and Driver Reaction Time from Perception (DRTP) were derived, and the measurements were statistically analyzed to investigate differences by age group, gender, speed, and type of hazardous situation. Most participants were found to avoid collisions by braking first rather than steering for the presented hazardous situations, except for the cutting in situation. Also, to determine a reaction time that would cover most drivers, the 85th percentile of DRTP was calculated. The 85th percentile of DRTP was in the range of 0.550 – 0.800 s. Specifically for each hazardous situation, it was 0.650 s for driving over the centerline, 0.800 s for the pedestrian jaywalking, 0.660 s for cutting in, and 0.550 s for the intersection traffic signal violation. For all 4 hazardous situations combined, the 85th percentile of DRTP was 0.646 s. The findings can be utilized to determine the driver’s likelihood of avoiding accidents when faced with similar hazardous situations.