Social Control Measures Research Articles

The suspended sentence in German criminal law

From the ancient times until today, criminal law in all countries has provided different criminal sanctions as social control measures. These are court-imposed coercive measures that take away or limit certain rights and freedoms of criminal offenders. Sanctions are applied to natural or legal persons who violate the norms of the legal order and cause damage or endanger other legal goods that enjoy legal protection. In order to effectively protect social values jeopardized by the commission of crime, state legislations prescribe several kinds of criminal sanctions: 1) penalties, 2) precautions, 3) safety measures, 4) penalties for juvenile offenders, and 5) sanctions for legal persons. Penalties are the basic, the oldest and the most important type of criminal sanctions. They are prescribed for the largest number of criminal offences. Imposed instead of or alongside with penalties, warning measures have particularly important role in jurisprudence. Since they were introduced in the system of criminal sanctions in the early 20th century, there has been a notable increase in the application of these measures, particularly in cases involving negligent and accidental offences, and minor offences that do not cause serious consequences, whose perpetrators are not persons with criminal characteristics. Warning measures (suspended sentence) are envisaged in all contemporary criminal legislations, including the German legislation. Suspended sentence is a conditional stay of execution of the sentence of imprisonment for a specified time, provided that the convicted person fulfills the imposed obligations and does not commit another criminal offense. Two conditions must be fulfilled for the application of these sanctions: a) the formal requirement, which is attached to the sentence of imprisonment; and b) the substantive requirement, which implies the court assessment that the application of these sanctions is justified and necessary in a particular case. Many modern legislations include two different types of conditional convictions: 1) ordinary (classical) suspended sentence, and 2) a suspended sentence with supervision. If the convicted person fails to comply with a court order, the law provides for the mandatory or optional revocation of the suspended sentence.

The Islamic State Threat to Western Homeland Security

Research on the relationship between threatening populations and conditions, and mechanisms of social control has increased steadily since the publication of Blalock's, Theory of Minority Group Relations, in 1967. Blalock's theory of social threat and social control asserts that unique types of threat elicit distinct forms of social control. Social threat theorists typically present two types of social control: coercive controls and placative controls. Coercive controls include incarceration, arrest, and other types of formal state surveillance. Placative controls include programs and/or institutions, like welfare and mental health services, which protect or aid people in some way. Much of social threat research examines how certain populations or social conditions affect measures of social control. However, recently researchers have begun to examine the extent to which forms of social control are related to one another. This is typically referred to as the “trade off” hypothesis, which asserts that there is an inverse relationship between forms of social control. To test this hypothesis, the researcher will perform a meta-analysis of studies that explore the relationship between two macro forms of social control: welfare (placative), and incarceration and arrest (coercive).

Cidade e Diversidade no Filme "O Congresso Futurista"

Esta publicação interdisciplinar apresenta uma reflexão entre o gênero, como categoria de análise, e o espaço, enquanto campo de materialização das representações sociais, dos desejos e da condição do corpo. Em contraste ao planejamento regular e ordenado da cidade do século XIX, como efeito das medidas de controle social, problematizamos a possibilidade de um lugar onde as pessoas pudessem expressar suas singularidades publicamente, indo além do gênero e rompendo com a heteronormatividade. Com apoio da teoria queer, apresentamos o exemplo desta livre associação entre gênero e espaço através do filme “O Congresso Futurista”, onde o fluxo das liberdades identitárias, dos desejos e da hibridização do corpo refletem-se na desterritorialização do espaço urbano, definindo o simulacro de um lugar dinâmico e flexível a ser compartilhado.

VADIAGEM E PRISÕES CORRECIONAIS EM SÃO PAULO: MECANISMOS DE CONTROLE NO FIRMAMENTO DA REPÚBLICA

Resumo O artigo discute o modo como se operou em São Paulo o controle e a repressão da vadiagem, categoria social forjada pelo discurso jurídico entre o final do século XIX e a primeira metade do XX, através de tecnologias de assujeitamento de indivíduos submetidos a formas de classificação e controle expressas em práticas policiais arbitrárias como as detenções correcionais. Para tanto, analisam-se sobretudo dados extraídos de relatórios policiais entre as décadas de 1930 e 1940, que indicam a sobreposição das medidas de controle social aos instrumentos jurídico-penais, opondo formas heterodoxas de gestão dos ilegalismos ao ciclo completo da punição.

Immigrant Generations and Delinquency

Recent research has demonstrated an “immigrant paradox”: a parallel between assimilation and increased engagement in adolescent delinquency. Although evidence has suggested that social control and differential association contribute to the criminological understanding of the immigrant paradox, not many studies have simultaneously incorporated measures of social control and differential association to explore delinquency across immigrant generations. Based on a sample of nationally representative adolescents ( N = 13,121) from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), this study investigates whether and how social control (i.e., family control and school control) and differential association (i.e., delinquent friends association) explain the relationship between immigrant generation and delinquency. Results indicate that delinquent friendships play a more important role and account for much of the difference in delinquency across generations. Moreover, within each generation, delinquent friendships have a more consistent effect on delinquency. However, family control and school control are stronger predictors of delinquency for the third-plus generation than for earlier generations.

The suspended sentence in French Criminal Law

From the ancient times until today, criminal law has provided different criminal sanctions as measures of social control. These coercive measures are imposed on the criminal offender by the competent court and aimed at limitting the offender's rights and freedoms or depriving the offender of certain rights and freedoms. These sanctions are applied to the natural or legal persons who violate the norms of the legal order and injure or endanger other legal goods that enjoy legal protection. In order to effectively protect social values, criminal legislations in all countries predict a number of criminal sanctions. These are: 1) imprisonment, 2) precautions, 3) safety measures, 4) penalties for juveniles, and 5) sanctions for legal persons. Apart and instead of punishment, warning measures have a significant role in the jurisprudence. Since they emerged in the early 20th century in the system of criminal sanctions, there has been an increase in their application to criminal offenders, especially when it comes to first-time offenders who committed a negligent or accidental criminal act. Warnings are applied in case of crimes that do not have serious consequences, and whose perpetrators are not hardened and incorrigible criminals. All contemporary criminal legislations (including the French legilation) provide a warning measure of suspended sentence. Suspended sentence is a conditional stay of execution of sentence of imprisonment for a specified time, provided that the convicted person does not commit another criminal offense and fulfills other obligations. This sanction applies if the following two conditions are fulfilled: a) forma! -which is attached to the sentence of imprisonment; and b) material -which is the court assessment that the application of this sanction is justified and necessary in a particular case. In many modern criminal legislations, there are two different types of suspended (conditional) sentence: 1) ordinary (classical) suspended sentence, and 2) a suspended sentence with supervision. If the convicted person fails to comply with a court order, the law provides for the mandatory or optional revocation of the suspended sentence.

Introduction: The Labor Market in the Aftermath of the Great Recession

Previous articleNext article No AccessIntroduction: The Labor Market in the Aftermath of the Great RecessionGuest Editor: David Card and Guest Editor: Alexandre MasGuest Editor: David CardUniversity of California, Berkeley Search for more articles by this author and Guest Editor: Alexandre MasPrinceton University Search for more articles by this author University of California, BerkeleyPrinceton UniversityPDFPDF PLUSFull Text Add to favoritesDownload CitationTrack CitationsPermissionsReprints Share onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail SectionsMoreDetailsFiguresReferencesCited by Journal of Labor Economics Volume 34, Number S1Part 2, January 2016 Published for the Society of Labor Economists, Economics Research Center/ NORC Article DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1086/682829 Views: 902Total views on this site Citations: 10Citations are reported from Crossref HistoryPublished online December 16, 2015 © 2015 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved.PDF download Crossref reports the following articles citing this article:Keith Finlay, Michael Mueller-Smith Justice-Involved Individuals in the Labor Market since the Great Recession, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 695, no.11 (Aug 2021): 107–122.https://doi.org/10.1177/00027162211024532J. Cristian Rangel A way forward: Considering the sustainability, equity and unintended effects of social control measures as a response to the COVID ‐19 crisis, Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 27, no.11 (Dec 2020): 3–8.https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.13508Hamid Noghanibehambari, Mahmoud Salari Health benefits of social insurance, Health Economics 29, no.1212 (Sep 2020): 1813–1822.https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4170Mario Pianta Technology and Work: Key Stylized Facts for the Digital Age, (Jan 2020): 1–17.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57365-6_3-1Janette Dill, Melissa J. Hodges Is healthcare the new manufacturing?: Industry, gender, and “good jobs” for low- and middle-skill workers, Social Science Research 84 (Nov 2019): 102350.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.102350Daniel P. Hampson, Anthony Grimes, Emma Banister, Peter J. McGoldrick A typology of consumers based on money attitudes after major recession, Journal of Business Research 91 (Oct 2018): 159–168.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.06.011Mario Pianta Technology and Employment: Twelve Stylised Facts for the Digital Age, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics 61, no.22 (Aug 2018): 189–225.https://doi.org/10.1007/s41027-018-0124-5Valeria Cirillo, Mario Pianta, Leopoldo Nascia , Sustainability 10, no.22 ( 2018): 463.https://doi.org/10.3390/su10020463Valeria Cirillo Technology, employment and skills, Economics of Innovation and New Technology 26, no.88 (Nov 2016): 734–754.https://doi.org/10.1080/10438599.2017.1258765Philip Watson, Steven Deller Economic diversity, unemployment and the Great Recession, The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 64 (May 2017): 1–11.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2016.12.003

Revisiting employee fraud: gender, investigation outcomes and offender motivation

Purpose – This paper aims to present the findings of a study examining fraud in the workplace setting, principally in the Australasian context. Although prior research into occupational fraud is conceptually rich, there is a lack of empirical evidence of this important but elusive problem. Design/methodology/approach – Based on investigative data from 14 participating firms, the paper provides insights into the gender breakdowns and stated motivations of offenders. The paper also provides evidence of the number of investigations, interviews and reports to law enforcement in these firms. Findings – The study finds that genders are evenly balanced for most firms, with females significantly outnumbering males in banking firms. Self-imposed financial hardship was the most popular motivator. Of the number of admissions to wrongdoing, only half were subsequently reported to law enforcement. Research limitations/implications – Particularly complex or advanced types of occupational fraud may go unreported or undetected: as a result, the figures presented in this study may be incomplete. Reported figures are based largely on historical data provided by respondents, and the authors are unable to report accurate details of the respondent firms. This makes it difficult to determine the frequency of offending against the background population. Practical implications – Investigators should continue to look for changes in the life circumstances of their staff. Such changes will give an indication of instances of staff living beyond their means and the sudden financial pressures that can compel occupational fraud. Instead of trying to supervise staff to an impractical degree, managers and proprietors would be well advised to be alert to the kind of pressures that their staff might experience. Social implications – Social control and detection measures are likely to be easier to implement and less invasive than technical controls. The study provides additional pressure to update traditional conceptualisations of the male white collar offender. While male offenders were responsible for larger losses per case, females were more numerous in the summary offence data. Originality/value – Gaining insights into the problem of employee fraud and white collar crime is difficult. The authors’ contribution in this paper is to provide empirical insights into the makeup of white collar offenders, including insights on gender.

Substance Use and Physical Dating Violence: The Role of Contextual Moderators.

Theoretic models suggest that associations between substance use and dating violence perpetration may vary in different social contexts, but few studies have examined this proposition. The current study examined whether social control and violence in the neighborhood, peer, and family contexts moderate the associations between substance use (heavy alcohol use, marijuana, and hard drug use) and adolescent physical dating violence perpetration. Adolescents in the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades completed questionnaires in 2004 and again four more times until 2007 when they were in the tenth, 11th, and 12th grades. Multilevel analysis was used to examine interactions between each substance and measures of neighborhood, peer, and family social control and violence as within-person (time-varying) predictors of physical dating violence perpetration across eighth through 12th grade (N=2,455). Analyses were conducted in 2014. Physical dating violence perpetration increased at time points when heavy alcohol and hard drug use were elevated; these associations were weaker when neighborhood social control was higher and stronger when family violence was higher. Also, the association between heavy alcohol use and physical dating violence perpetration was weaker when teens had more-prosocial peer networks and stronger when teens' peers reported more physical dating violence. Linkages between substance use and physical dating violence perpetration depend on substance use type and levels of contextual violence and social control. Prevention programs that address substance use-related dating violence should consider the role of social contextual variables that may condition risk by influencing adolescents' aggression propensity.

Collective (in) efficacy, substance abuse and violence in “Freedom Park,” Cape Town

Using collective efficacy as a lens, the paper tries to understand high levels of violence and crime within an urban settlement in Cape Town, which has recently undergone an upgrading process from an informal into a formal settlement. Theory and evidence from North America are that collective efficacy (social cohesion and informal control) has a significant bearing on levels of violence and crime and impacts on the ability of a community to regulate antisocial behavior. The paper has three main concerns, namely (a) the impact of the upgrading project on social cohesion within the settlement (b) the impact of an apparent decrease in social cohesion on informal measures of social control and the community’s ability to regulate crime and violence in the settlement and (c) how the presence of a concentration of illegal liquor and drug outlets affects collective efficacy and levels of violence and crime in turn. Research in Freedom Park reveals that the upgrading project did seem to diminish levels of social cohesion, marked by trust and solidarity, within the settlement. Whereas residents had previously depended on one another to maintain order and safety within the settlement, after upgrading, these informal arrangements and support structures have all but disappeared. A proliferation of illegal alcohol and drug outlets has simultaneously contributed to increasing levels of violence and crime and eroded social cohesion among residents. This research shows that while collective efficacy does provide a useful starting point, given the complex nature of violence and crime, it cannot be considered in isolation of broader structural constraints like poverty and unemployment, which feed into a vicious cycle of deprivation violence and crime in disadvantaged neighborhoods in cities of the South.

Masculinity and medicalization: Gender and vocabularies of motive in the narrative of a sex offender

This paper explores the tension between vocabularies of motive provided by a serial sex offender in his narrative construction of his nonconsensual sexual activity. Current discourses on the topic emphasize the efficacy of social control measures and behavioral and pharmacological interventions. There is a dearth of sociological literature exploring the social meanings of sexual offense. Employing a symbolic interactionist approach to a sex offender’s account of self provides an opportunity for making visible the discursive construction of social processes. Deploying broad gender stereotypes in depictions of the women against whom he offended, the case presented here also relied on three dominant therapeutic constructions of the sexual deviant, the psychosocial, the addiction/compulsion model, and the bio-psychiatric—all of which neglect the gendered aspect of his offenses. Positing himself as a “true sex offender” and voluntarily taking hormonal suppressants that rendered him impotent, he was the ideal subject of bio-psychiatric discourse. The paper analyses his narrative in terms of contrasting notions of gender and deviance, masculinity and medicalization, and explores the ways language of institutionally supported interventions are used to make meaningful both normal and deviant identities, while disengaging from gender discourses.

Influence in Relationships: A Meta-Analysis on Health-Related Social Control

People in close relationships influence the health behavior of their significant others. Recent research has explored one form of influence—social control—and produced results that suggest varying relationships between social control, health outcomes, and psychological well-being. For the present article, we conducted a meta-analysis to compare three predominant models of social control. We observed that measures of social control that distinguish between positive and negative forms of social control demonstrated stronger associations with health outcomes than did general measures of social control. Furthermore, measures of positive and negative social control were related to proposed psychological mediators.

Securitisation and the mega‐event: an editorial introduction

I n August 2011 organisers of the London 2012 Olympics staged rehearsals for the Opening Ceremony due to commence exactly one year hence. Meanwhile, other parts of the city were experiencing rioting and looting on a scale not seen for 30 years. Whilst these two events were largely distinct, their simultaneous occurrence underscored an important point. For all the attention to the enclosure, artificial urbanism and contrived spaces that hosting sporting mega events create, they are accommodated in complex and often contested urban settings. Two years later, the links between the politics of the street and the sporting mega-event spectacle became cemented elsewhere. Echoing protests against Mexico City’s profligate Olympic spending at a time of austerity in 1968, June 2013 saw more than a million people take to the streets across 100 Brazilian cities. Although activist causes were manifold they unmistakably coalesced around the social and pecuniary impacts of Brazil’s staging of the 2014 FIFA World Cup and 2016 Olympic Games. As mega-event spectacles, replete with promises of ‘regeneration’ and ‘legacy’, continue to encroach further into the urban realm, so different levels of action, activism, governance and policy necessarily become drawn together. For sporting mega-events, it is in the realm of security practice where the heat generated by internationally focused agendas abrading with local practices, processes and priorities is greatest. Here, the promise of stringent security guarantees is a precondition for hosts who operate under a constant risk of catastrophic reputational damage should they not be met. Of course, it is rare that, in such a broad sense, ‘security’ can ever be guaranteed and, for planners, its pursuit results in dwindling levels of acceptable risk. When applied to the complex, dynamic and unpredictable realm of the global city, the contemporary stage for sporting mega events, such promises are even harder to keep. The result is uneasy coalitions of international, national, regional and local security practice; a merger of civil, military and criminal justice techniques and technologies of social control; and a proliferation of security priorities. Yet whilst some of these measures may be exceptional for the cities that host them, they often represent very familiar elements of mega-event security programmes.

How Do Australian Print Media Representations of Child Abuse and Neglect Inform the Public and System Reform?: Stories place undue emphasis on social control measures and too little emphasis on social care responses

The print media play a vital role in informing the public about child abuse and neglect. This information helps build broad support for laws and system developments that enable the state to intervene into private family lives and ensure that children are protected from maltreatment. Print media coverage usually sets the daily media agenda. It therefore influences public understandings of child abuse and neglect and what people believe should be done about it. Media impact on policy agendas should not be underestimated. This article outlines the results of a study of all major Australian newspaper stories covering abuse and neglect matters during an 18-month period in 2008–2009. A range of issues are identified concerning how well these stories inform the public about the nature of the problem and the current national reform agenda for protective systems that promotes early intervention and prevention...

Neighborhood informal social control and child maltreatment: A comparison of protective and punitive approaches

This paper introduces a new measure of informal social control of child maltreatment (henceforth ISC_CM) by neighbors. Research literature typically uses collective efficacy (Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997) to examine neighborhood informal social control. We argue that double standards about the application of informal social control to family versus street crime requires a measure of informal social control specific to child maltreatment. We also argue that how neighbors intervene may matter as much as whether they intervene. Neighbors may engage in ISC_CM aimed at protecting the child and calming the parent, or more punitive ISC_CM aimed at deterring future abuse. We tested the relationship of both with very severe physical abuse and with abuse related child behavior problems. We used a random, 2-stage cluster design of Hanoi to collect the sample. Thirty Hanoi wards were randomly selected using probability proportional to size sampling. A simple random sample of families in each ward was then drawn using local government lists of ward residents. Based on power analysis, the target sample size was 300. Of 315 residents contacted, 293 participated, yielding a response rate of 93%. Random effects regression models (which estimate a random effect for each ward) were run in Stata11. We found that protective ISC_CM is associated with lower odds of very severe physical abuse and lower reported externalizing problems when abuse is present. Perceived collective efficacy and punitive ISC_CM is not associated with lower odds of very severe physical abuse. Implications for research, policy and practice are discussed. We conclude that further investigation of neighbor ISC_CM is needed to replicate the findings in other cultural contexts, ultimately followed by experimental manipulation of ISC_CM in a neighborhood context to examine the effects on child maltreatment. If further research corroborates the current findings, the development of neighborhood intervention programs to enhance protective ISC_CM may assist materially in reducing very severe child abuse and negative consequences stemming from such abuse.

MICHAEL B. KATZ. Why Don't American Cities Burn?

As a collection of thoughtful essays about the nature of the American modern city and especially the persistent pattern of concentrated poverty there, this book serves as a useful synthesis for recent policy debate. Going well beyond the topic suggested in his title, Michael B. Katz assesses, among other things, the nature of black inequality and the shift to market-based solutions to urban problems, as well as the reasons why cities have seldom since encountered the widespread civil disturbances that broke out across the United States in the 1960s. Cities no longer burn, but not because their problems have been solved. Rather, Katz argues, the selective incorporation of minorities into local power structures as part of what he calls the management of marginalization as well as draconian measures of social control have dampened collective dissent. Unlike France, which recently witnessed upheavals in suburban ghettos where immigrants without hope are concentrated, the United States has been largely successful in keeping the peace without materially altering place-based disparities in income.

Social capital and dental pain in Brazilian northeast: a multilevel cross-sectional study

BackgroundThere is limited evidence on possible associations between social determinants and dental pain. This study investigated the relationship of neighborhood and individual social capital with dental pain in adolescents, adults and the elderly.MethodsA population-based multilevel study was conducted involving 624 subjects from 3 age groups: 15–19, 35–44 and 65–74 years. They were randomly selected from 30 census tracts in three cities in the State of Paraíba, Brazil. A two-stage cluster sampling was used considering census tracts and households as sampling units. The outcome of study was the presence of dental pain in the last 6 months. Information on dental pain, demographic, socio-economic, health-related behaviors, use of dental services, self-perceived oral health and social capital measures was collected through interviews. Participants underwent a clinical examination for assessment of dental caries. Neighborhood social capital was evaluated using aggregated measures of social trust, social control, empowerment, political efficacy and neighborhood safety. Individual social capital assessment included bonding and bridging social capital. Multilevel logistic regression was used to test the relationship of neighborhood and individual social capital with dental pain after sequential adjustment for covariates.ResultsIndividuals living in neighborhoods with high social capital were 52% less likely to report dental pain than those living in neighborhoods with low social capital (OR = 0.48, 95% CI = 0.27-0.85). Bonding social capital (positive interaction) was independently associated with dental pain (OR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.80-0.91). Last dental visit, self-perceived oral health and number of decayed teeth were also significantly associated with dental pain.ConclusionsOur findings suggest that contextual and individual social capital are independently associated with dental pain.

A prescriptive intergenerational-tension ageism scale: Succession, identity, and consumption (SIC).

We introduce a novel ageism scale, focusing on prescriptive beliefs concerning potential intergenerational tensions: active, envied resource succession, symbolic identity avoidance, and passive, shared-resource consumption (SIC). Four studies (2,010 total participants) were used to develop the scale. Exploratory factor analysis formed an initial 20-item, 3-factor solution (Study 1). The scale converges appropriately with other prejudice measures and diverges from other social control measures (Study 2). It diverges from antiyouth ageism (Study 3). The Study 4 experiment yielded both predictive and divergent validity apropos another ageism measure. Structural equation modeling confirmed model fit across all studies. Per an intergenerational-tension focus, younger people consistently scored the highest. As generational equity issues intensify, the scale provides a contemporary tool for current and future ageism research.

El trabajo en las minas de Guanajuato durante la segunda mitad del siglo xviii

This article discusses the labor in the mines of Guanajuato during the second half of the 18th century, to show the diversity of trades among the workers, but above all that these processes were subject to an era of mining modernization led by the State. The forced labor, labor regulation by the State with the intervention of the mining companies and the adoption of various measures of labor and social control, limited the development of the workforce in one of the most advanced sectors of the times.

The irresistible rise of the SEN industry

This article offers some explanations for the simultaneous expansion of special educational services and personnel, with the increasing inclusion in mainstream education of more young people with disabilities and learning difficulties. Following discussions with some 70 professionals, administrators and others in a study in four countries, it suggests that underpinning mass education systems in developed and developing countries is an expanded and expensive ‘SEN industry’. Governments have acquiesced in the development of this industry, conceding its importance in dealing with groups who may be increasingly surplus to labour requirements in ‘knowledge economies’ and also in need of social control measures. It is unlikely that special education will disappear despite commitments to inclusive education. The article notes that those defined as in need of special educational attention vary at different historical times and between different professions, but a majority of those regarded as having learning and/or behaviour problems were always largely from the lower social classes. Although historically middle-class parents usually denied they had ‘defective’ children, and avoided stigmatised categorisation or schooling, now the middle classes and aspirant parents increasing claim classification, funding and resourcing for children who are unlikely to achieve in competitive market-driven school systems. The needs of parents, for their children to be resourced on the basis of medical or therapeutic ‘diagnosis’, the continuing needs of teachers encouraged or coerced to ‘raise standards’ to be free of troublesome and disruptive pupils, and the needs of an expanding number of professionals and practitioners, including neuroscientists and ‘brain’ experts, to expand their clientele are further explanations offered for the rise of the SEN industry.