Mature Defense Style Research Articles

Relationship between defense styles and neurochemical variables of the hippocampus in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder.

This study aims to assess the correlation between NAA (N-acetyl-l-aspartate), CHO (choline), and CRE (creatine) levels in the hippocampus regions of individuals suffering from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and defensive styles of the ego. The study group was composed of twenty patients with OCD and twenty healthy controls. NAA, CHO, and CRE values in the hippocampal region using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) were measured. Participants' defense styles were ascertained by administering the Defense Style Questionnaire-40. The patient group's NAA levels were considerably lower than the control group's on both sides of the hippocampus. The levels of CHO and CRE did not significantly differ between the two groups. The following statistically significant correlations were discovered: in the comparison group, there were negative correlations between the scores of mature defense styles and the right and left CHO levels, as well as between the immature defense mechanism scores and the right NAA levels in both the patient and control groups. In the patient group, there were also negative correlations between the left NAA values and the scores of mature defense styles. OCD patients have lower levels of NAA in the hippocampus. To validate and extend the current findings, more research involving a greater sample size is required.

Exploring ego defense mechanisms in preclinical dentistry students: a cross-sectional analysis

Defense mechanisms are unconscious psychological operations that function to protect a person from anxiety-producing thoughts and feelings that mediate the individual's reaction to emotional internal conflicts and to external stressors. Challenging academic curriculum in dentistry can result in elevated levels of stress, anxiety, depression, burnout, suicidal intent, and other mental health issues. The aim of the current investigation was therefore to examine the prevalence and type of defense styles used by dental students as well as to analyze associations of these defenses with some demographic and academic factors. The study was based on a cross-sectional design and used convenience sampling to recruit a total of 125 preclinical dentistry students. Defensive functioning was measured by using the Defense Style Questionnaire – modified form (DSQ-20). The results showed that according to their mean scores, the most employed EDM was sublimation, followed by rationalization and idealization. Two conceptual patterns of defenses (mature and immature) tend to co-occur in males as well as in general, men endorsed psychological defenses to a higher degree than did women. There were no significant associations with students’ age and year of study. Contrary to previous reports, a significant negative correlation between academic performance and mature defense styles was found. Proper implementation of defenses might contribute to reducing symptoms of maladaptive behavior, ensuring a better psychological well-being, and increasing quality of life. Considering educational environment, this might facilitate better outcomes in academic field and subsequently, better professional realization of future dentists.

Intervening Effect of Maladaptive Personality on the Relationship Between Defense Styles and Psychiatric Symptoms Among Prisoners.

Prison settings are stress-inducing environments that make individuals more vulnerable to psychopathology. Defense styles and personality traits have long been associated with psychopathology. The current study aimed to explain the intervening role of maladaptive personality domains on the relationship between defense styles and psychiatric symptoms among male convicts imprisoned in nine Central Jails of Punjab, Pakistan. Through cross-sectional design, data was collected through purposive sampling. 509 respondents (who were serving their sentence for the crime committed) with a Mean age of 35 years (10.21) provided data on self-reported translated versions of the Cross-Cutting Symptoms Measure, Personality Inventory for DSM 5 - Adult version (Short Form), and Defense Style Questionnaire. Findings of the mediation analysis showed that negative affectivity, disinhibition, and psychoticism mediated the relationship between immature defense style and psychiatric symptoms whereas moderation analysis showed a significant interactional effect of antagonism with mature and neurotic defense style on psychiatric symptoms exclusively. Findings have highlighted that defense styles and certain personality domains intervene to have a combined indirect effect on psychiatric symptoms. The study also contributes to the literature by specifying the interactional effect of antagonism and mature defense style on predicting psychiatric symptoms.

The impact of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) on the psychological defense mechanism and weight loss program: A randomized controlled trial among university students during COVID-19 movement control order

This study examined the effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) in changing the psychological defense mechanism and promoting weight loss among overweight or obese (OW/OB) university students. A sample of 152 OW/OB university students who reported high immature and neurotic defense styles was randomly assigned into ACT, ACT-EX (ACT and structured exercise program), or a control group (CG) for a six-week intervention program. Group × time interactions showed that the BMI and all defense styles improved in the ACT and ACT-EX groups. The BMI was significantly lower in ACT-EX than in ACT, while the within-group effect size was larger in ACT than in ACT-EX for immature and neurotic defense styles. The mature defense style showed a significant improvement albeit with a small effect size in both ACT and ACT-EX. Both ACT interventions were found to be effective in promoting weight loss and improving the psychological defense mechanism, including experiential avoidance.

Investigation of Differences in Early Maladaptive Schemas and Defense Mechanisms in Individuals with Gender Identity Disorder Compared to Normal Individuals

This study aimed to investigate the differences in early maladaptive schemas and defense mechanisms between individuals with gender identity disorder and normal individuals. The research design was causal-comparative. The study population comprised all individuals with gender identity disorder (female to male and male to female) and normal individuals in Shiraz city in the year 2023. Out of the population, 30 individuals with gender identity disorder who attended forensic medicine, psychiatric clinics, and gender change centers in Shiraz, and 30 normal individuals were selected through convenience sampling and studied. Young's Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) and the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ) were used for data collection. After data collection and extraction, the participants' scores were analyzed using univariate and multivariate analysis of variance with the SPSS-24 statistical software. The findings indicated significant differences in early maladaptive schemas (rejection and disconnection, impaired autonomy and performance, other-directedness, overvigilance and inhibition, and impaired limits) between individuals with gender identity disorder and normal individuals (p < .01). The results also showed significant differences in neurotic defense style and immature defense style between individuals with gender identity disorder and normal individuals (p < .01); and a significant difference was found in the mature defense style between the two groups (p < .05). Therefore, by identifying immature defense mechanisms and early maladaptive schemas and measuring their severity in individuals with gender identity disorder, psychological interventions (psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapy) alongside other medical actions can be employed to reduce the severity of these mechanisms and schemas.

Personality characteristics, defense styles, borderline symptoms, and non-suicidal self-injury in first-episode major depressive disorder.

Non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) is commonly seen in adolescents with depression and is a high-risk factor leading to suicide. The psychological mechanisms underlying depression with NSSI are still unclear. The purpose of this study was to explore the differences in personality traits, defensive styles, and borderline symptoms among first-episode youth patients with depression and self-injury compared with patients with depression without self-injury and healthy populations. The current study recruited 188 participants, including 64 patients with depression and NSSI, 60 patients with depression without NSSI, and 64 healthy control subjects. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, the Defense Style Questionnaire, the short version of the Borderline Symptom List, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Ottawa Self-Injury Inventory were used to assess all participants. Patients with depression and NSSI showed more psychoticism than patients with depression without NSSI and healthy control subjects. Patients with depression and NSSI presented more intermediate defense styles than healthy control subjects. In the patients with depression and NSSI group, the frequency of self-injury in the last week was negatively correlated with mature defense styles and positively correlated with depressive symptoms and borderline symptoms. Further regression analysis showed that EPQ-psychoticism and depressive symptoms were independent risk factors for NSSI in patients with depression. This study found that patients with depression and self-injury presented more neuroticism, introversion, EPQ-psychoticism, immature defenses, intermediate defenses, and borderline symptoms. Self-injury frequency was negatively correlated with mature defense styles and positively correlated with depressive symptoms and borderline symptoms. EPQ-Psychoticism and depressive symptoms are risk factors for predicting non-suicidal self-injury in patients with depression.

Comparison of adolescent referred involuntarily or voluntarily to psychiatric hospitalization

Purpose of the study To study in an adolescent clinical inpatient population how clinical, background and psychological factors differ between adolescents referred voluntarily or involuntarily. Methods In this prospective cohort study, we compared adolescents (age 13–17 years, n = 206) who had been referred to psychiatric hospitalization for the first time in their life either voluntarily (n = 144) or involuntarily (n = 62). We gathered from clinical records data on the source, mode and reason for referral as well as on whether after referral the subjects were admitted to the hospital voluntarily or not, and whether they were committed to involuntary hospitalization after the observation period. Diagnostics was based on Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL) interview, supplemented by information from clinical records. Structured self-reports provided information on family background, depressive symptoms, substance use, defense styles, self-image and perceived social support. Results The majority of referrals due to psychotic symptoms were involuntary, whereas self-harm was the primary reason for involuntary and voluntary referrals in comparable extent. After diagnostic evaluation, no significant difference in psychotic disorders was observed between the two groups, but anxiety disorders were more prevalent among inpatients referred voluntarily than involuntarily. Among adolescents referred involuntary, parents were more often unemployed and had mental health problems. In self-assessments, mature defense style and more positive self-image were associated with adolescents referred involuntarily compared with those referred voluntarily. Conclusions Not only psychiatric but also psychological and social factors were associated with involuntary referral for psychiatric hospitalization in adolescents.

The Relationship Between Defenses and Learning: The Mediating Role of Procrastination and Well-Being Among Undergraduate Students.

This study investigates the relationship among defense styles and learning through academic procrastination and psychological well-being. The sample comprises 628 social science students from a Greek university. Path analysis is used to explore associations and interactions among the variables. The results show that academic procrastination and psychological well-being mediate the relationship between defense styles and approaches to learning, indicating the expected direct and indirect effects. Defense styles are directly related to approaches to learning. Mature defense styles are associated with learning through psychological well-being in a positive way, and immature defense styles are associated with learning through academic procrastination in a negative way. This study supports the current line of research in associations between defense styles and learning and the importance of linking mental health variables with learning.

Are Defense Styles Mediators between traumatic Experiences and Maladaptive Daydreaming?

Maladaptive daydreaming (MD) is a new proposed mental disorder in which an excessive absorption in vivid, narrative fantasies generates impairments in various life domains. This study aimed to examine the role of traumatic life experiences and immature, neurotic, and mature defense styles in MD. Three hundred and fifty-six Italian adults, ranging in age from 18 to 60 years completed an online survey, including measures of MD, traumatic life events, and defense styles. A multiple mediation model showed that immature, neurotic, and mature defense styles fully mediated the relationship between traumatic life experiences and MD. These findings suggest that clinical interventions for people with a history of traumatic experience who developed MD should aim to help them acquire more adaptive coping strategies to deal with traumatic memories.

Worldviews about the self mediate the impact of immature and mature defense styles on posttraumatic symptoms in bereaved parents

The present study analyzed the mediating role of assumptive worldviews on the effect of defense mechanisms on post-traumatic stress symptoms (PTS) in bereaved parents. Sample included a convenience sample of 153 bereaved parents and a control group of 157 nonbereaved parents. Structural equation modeling was conducted to examine our hypotheses. Bereaved parents presented higher levels of PTS and more negative assumptions compared to nonbereaved participants. Worthiness of the self mediated the effect of both immature and mature defense styles on PTS levels, and neurotic defense style directly predicted PTS levels.

Adolescent Inpatients with Depression: Comparison to Inpatients without Depression and to Peers without Psychiatric Disorders

Background: Family background, social support and psychological characteristics are known to be associated with depression in adolescence, but scientific data in complex, naturalistic settings are scarce. Objective: To investigate the characteristics of adolescent psychiatric inpatients with depressive disorders compared to peers without psychiatric disorders and to adolescent psychiatric inpatients without depression. Methods: The study population of 206 inpatients (13-17 years old) and 203 age and gendermatched non-referred adolescents was evaluated using the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children-Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL) interview, and clinical interview and clinical records when available. Structured self-reports provided information on family background, defense styles, self-image and perceived social support. We compared firstly subjects with current depressive disorders (n=120) to subjects without any psychiatric disorder (n=159) and secondly within the inpatient population, those with depressive disorders (n=117) to those with any other psychiatric diagnoses (n=89). Results: Current depressive disorders were characterized by worse self-image, less mature defenses and less perceived social support particularly from the family. Adversities in the family were more prevalent in subjects with depression compared to subjects without any psychiatric diagnosis, while among inpatients, no significant differences were observed. Psychiatric comorbidity was common in all inpatients, whereas suicidality was more prevalent among inpatients with depression. Conclusions: Negative self-image, less mature defense style and low perceived social support particularly from the family were characteristics of depression in adolescents.

Defensive styles and sexual motives

Summary Objectives Recent years have seen renewed interest for the study of motivations underlying the adoption of sexual behavior. And yet, there is still very little investigation into the psychological determinants of sexual motivation. To contribute to this field of knowledge we analyze the relationships between defense mechanisms and sexual motivations. Method Data for 295 subjects were collected online (241 women, 54 men, mean age: 23.26 years). The evaluation of defensive functioning was carried out using the Defense Style Questionnaire in its 28-item version. Sexual motivations were assessed using the French translation of the Reason for Having Sex Questionnaire (YSEX). Main Results Loving and physical motives lead most frequently to sexual relations. Positive correlations were found between mature defense styles and the number of sexual partners. Multiple regression analysis shows that defenses significantly contribute to explaining between 4.3 and 8.6% of variance in sexual motives. Regardless of the defensive style considered, the correlation is positive. Immature defense mechanisms are the main defenses related to sexual motives. Results are discussed according to literature on sexual motives and literature on defense mechanisms. Conclusion Psycho-sexological consultations investigating motivations for sexuality could benefit from a differential approach based on prior assessment of defensive functioning in order to best individually adapt clinical care.

Analysis of Childhood Traumas and Defense Styles in Patients With Tension Headache.

Studies indicate that patients tend to develop chronic tension headache as a response to stress. The present study investigated the relationship between headache and the events that caused childhood traumas and defense styles, which could be considered as a significant source of stress in individuals with tension headache. Fifty patients between the ages of 18 and 65 years diagnosed with tension headache were included in the present study. The control group included 50 healthy participants. All study participants completed a sociodemographic data form prepared by the researchers and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and Defense Style Questionnaire. Traumatic experiences (emotional abuse, physical abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect, and sexual abuse) were significantly higher in the patient group compared to the control group. The total score of immature and neurotic defense styles was higher in the patient group than in the control group (P < .001, P < .001). The mature defense styles total score was significantly higher in the control group than in the patient group (P = .006). A positive correlation was found between the childhood trauma scores and immature and neurotic defense style scores. The findings indicate that traumatic experiences during childhood were more frequent in patients with tension headache compared to healthy individuals. Furthermore, these individuals had difficulty coping with stress, and inappropriate defense styles were employed as a response to stress.

Temperament, Character, and Defense Mechanism Changes With Treatment in Depression: A 9-Month Naturalistic Follow-up.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in temperament, character, and defense mechanisms with the treatment and remission in patients with major depressive disorder. The study was designed as a longitudinal observational follow-up study of patients with repeated measures at 0, 12, and 36 weeks. In baseline comparisons, the major depression group showed higher harm avoidance and novelty seeking scores and lower self-directness and mature defense styles scores compared with healthy controls. In the follow-up, temperament dimensions and neurotic defenses remained unchanged, mature defense styles and self-directness revealed significant increase, and immature defense styles revealed significant decrease. Although there was no significant difference in the defense styles, harm avoidance and novelty seeking scores remained higher in MDD patients compare with healthy controls in 36 weeks. Our findings regarding continuation of hierarchically upward improvement in defense mechanism after the remission may support importance of treatment after remission.

Insight Into Illness and Defense Styles in Schizophrenia.

Although the psychological denial model argues that poor insight is a result of defense mechanisms, the direct relationship between the two remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the relationship between insight into illness and defense mechanisms while considering cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. A total of 38 patients with schizophrenia were evaluated for level of insight (Schedule for the Assessment of Insight), defense mechanisms (Defense Style Questionnaire), neurocognitive function (Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia), and psychotic symptoms (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale). Regarding level of insight, partial correlation analysis controlling neurocognitive and psychotic variables showed that "recognition of illness" was positively correlated with immature defense styles and negatively correlated with mature defense styles. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that "recognition of illness" was significantly predicted by immature defense styles. Our findings suggest that patients who tend to use immature defense styles are more likely to accept their own mental illness.

How do schema modes and mode factors align with defense styles and personality disorder symptoms?

Maladaptive schema modes (or modes) are a key concept in schema therapy; they reflect sets of currently activated maladaptive schemas, schema-evoked emotional distress, and coping attempts. Drawing on a set of 20 modes, this study aimed to replicate personality disorder (PD)-specific mode models, to investigate relationships among modes, higher order mode factors (i.e., Internalization, Externalization, and Compulsivity), and defense styles and to test the contributions of higher order mode factors and defense styles to variance in PD symptoms. The sample consisted of N = 533 German-speaking psychiatric inpatients. A total of 67 practically significant correlations between 20 modes and 10 PD scores were found (range: |.44| to |.76|), and 36 out of 47 hypothesized PD-mode associations were confirmed. In a series of 23 regression analyses, the immature, neurotic, and mature defense styles showed 23, 10, and 12 significant effects on mode variables, respectively. Defense styles jointly accounted for 9.0% to 42.4% of variance in mode variables after controlling for the effects of age and sex, implying that modes and defense styles are related yet distinguishable constructs. Finally, mode factors and defense styles independently accounted for unique variance in all 10 PD scores, with mode factors contributing significantly more to variance in antisocial, obsessive-compulsive, and avoidant PD symptoms. Implications of the results for theory and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Mindfulness dispositions and defense style as positive responses to psychological distress in oncology professionals.

Working in oncology departments is a stressful and emotionally consuming experience and oncology professionals are particularly at risk for developing stress-related syndromes. Defense mechanisms (high-adaptive) and mindfulness dispositions are known as facilitators of well-being and adaptation. In this study we analysed the role of these unconscious and conscious strategies in protecting the oncology clinicians from stress-related symptoms. A convenience sample of 63 oncology professionals was assessed on defense style, mindfulness disposition, depression and anxiety symptoms using self-reported questionnaires. Demographic and professional information was included in data collection. Results did not show significance differences in demographic and professional characteristics among all studied variables. Mature defense style and mindfulness were highly and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety, while a positive association was found between immature defense style and both depression and anxiety symptoms. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses found defense styles and mindfulness as predictors of depression, whereas only immature defense style predicted anxiety. The present study provides the first empirical evidence of the influence of unconscious defense mechanisms and conscious mindfulness dispositions in protecting oncology professionals from depression and anxiety symptoms. Defense mechanisms and mindfulness share several common-points and should be seen as complementary in enhancing physical and psychological well-being. Further studies are required for a deeper understanding of the impact of mindfulness and defenses in improving adaptation.

Relationships of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with defense styles and harm avoidance among male inpatients with alcohol use disorder.

Introduction:Patients with alcohol use disorder (AUD) use immature defense styles, and AUD is related with adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Harm avoidance (HA) is related with both AUD and particularly inattentiveness (IN) dimension of ADHD.Aim:The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship of defense styles with probable ADHD and severity of ADHD symptoms while controlling the effect of HA among male inpatients with AUD.Settings and Design:The present study with cross-sectional design was conducted at the Alcohol and Drug Research, Treatment and Training Center (AMATEM) of Bakirkoy Training and Research Hospital for Psychiatry Neurology and Neurosurgery in Istanbul.Statistical Analysis:Chi-square test, independent samples t-test, multiple logistic and linear regression analyses, and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) were used.Materials and Methods:Participants (n = 151) were evaluated with the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale, the Defense Style Questionnaire, and the HA Dimension of the Temperament and Character Inventory.Results:HA (particularly HA-1 [anticipatory worry and pessimism]) and immature defense style (particularly acting out) predicted the presence of probable ADHD. In linear regression analysis, HA (particularly HA-1 and HA-4 [fatigability and asthenia]), high immature (particularly acting out), and low mature defense styles predicted the severity of ADHD symptoms. In MANCOVA, immature defense style predicted both the IN and the hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI) dimensions of ADHD, whereas HA and IN dimension and low mature defense style predicted HI dimension.Conclusions:These findings suggest that immature defense style (i.e., acting out) is related with both the presence of probable ADHD and severity of ADHD symptoms, together with HA, which must be taken into account while treating patients with ADHD among male populations with AUD.

Effectiveness of psychoanalysis and long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy on personality and social functioning 10 years after start of treatment

The evidence on potentially greater benefits of psychoanalysis (PA) vs. long-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (LPP) is scarce. This study compared the effectiveness of PA and LPP on personality and social functioning during a 10-year follow-up from the beginning of the treatments. The eligible patients, 41 self-selected for PA and 128 assigned to LPP, were 20–45 years of age and had anxiety or mood disorder. Outcomes were analyzed using ten standard measures of personality and social functioning, carried out 5–9 times during the follow-up. Different change patterns by time in PA and LPP emerged, suggesting less benefit of PA during the first years of follow-up and more benefit in most outcomes thereafter. Greater post-treatment improvement in PA than in LPP was seen up to 1–2 years after PA had ended in more mature defense style (DSQ), level of personality organization (LPO), more positive self-concept (SASB), more improved social adjustment (SAS-SR) and sense of coherence (SOC). However, at the 10-year follow-up the differences were non-significant. In conclusion, PA may give some additional benefits when long-term aims are linked to personality and social functioning. The relatively small differences and higher costs in comparison to LPP may restrict the feasibility of PA.

Associations Between Defense Styles, Approaches to Learning, and Achievement Among University Students

The present study explores associations between defense styles, approaches to learning, students’ preferences for different types of courses/teaching and achievement. The psychometric properties of the Defense Style Questionnaire (DSQ-40), used for assessing students’ defense styles, are also explored. Participants in this study were undergraduates (N=425) studying in a social science department.The Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) is used for exploring students’ approaches to learning, while Grade Point Average (GPA) measured students’ academic achievement. The study suggests the contribution of defense styles to the Student Learning Research; it reports a mature and an immature learning pattern. Deep and strategic approaches to learning, preferences for classes that support understanding and GPA are associated with a mature defense style, whereas surface approach and preferences for classes that transmit information are associated with immature, image-distorting and neurotic defense styles. Defense styles as well as preferences for different courses appear to act as antecedents of approaches to learning; approaches mediate the effect of defenses and preferences on achievement although defenses have only a small impact. The study also suggests a four factor structure of the DSQ-40 in undergraduates. The findings are discussed in the context of the recent literature.