Marshy Environment Research Articles

A Review on -Valerian Plant

Valeriana officinalis, commonly known as Valerian, is a perennial flowering plant that has been used for centuries in traditional medicine for its sedative and anxiolytic properties. This comprehensive study aims to explore the botanical characteristics, geographical distribution, traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, health benefits, recommended dosages, and potential side effects of the Valerian plant. Through a detailed examination of both historical and contemporary research, this study provides an in-depth understanding of the therapeutic potential and applications of Valerian. The Valerian plant, native to Europe and parts of Asia, is distinguished by its fern-like leaves, small pink or white flowers, and a distinctive, somewhat pungent odor. It thrives in temperate climates, often found in moist, marshy environments. Historically, Valerian has been utilized across various cultures, including ancient Greece and Rome, where it was revered for its calming effects and ability to treat insomnia, anxiety, and nervous disorders. Its use extends to traditional Chinese medicine and European folklore, where it was often incorporated into medicinal preparations and protective charms. The pharmacological efficacy of Valerian is primarily attributed to its rich chemical composition. Key constituents include volatile oils, valepotriates, and sesquiterpenes, with valerenic acid identified as a major active compound. These components are believed to work synergistically to enhance GABAergic neurotransmission, thereby exerting sedative and anxiolytic effects on the central nervous system. Contemporary pharmacological studies have confirmed Valerian’s ability to promote relaxation, improve sleep quality, and alleviate symptoms of anxiety. Beyond its well-known use as a sleep aid, Valerian has shown promise in a variety of other health applications. Research suggests potential benefits in the management of menopausal symptoms, gastrointestinal disorders, and chronic pain conditions. The antioxidant and anti inflammatory properties of Valerian further contribute to its therapeutic versatility. Standardized extracts and tinctures of Valerian are commonly used, with recommended dosages typically ranging from 300 to 900 milligrams per day, depending on the intended use and individual factors.

Nonlinear Dynamics Research of Ground Undulatory Fin Robot with Flexible Deformation and Frictional Contact.

The unique rigid-flex connection between the fin-rays and fin-surface in a bionic undulatory fin robot endows the fin-surface with both active flexibility and load-bearing capacity, enabling this robot to perform amphibious motions in underwater, terrestrial, and even marshy environments. However, investigations into dynamic modeling problems for the undulatory fin robot, considering the impact of nonlinear deformation and frictional contact on ground locomotion performance, are scarce. Given this, based on the absolute nodal coordinate formulation (ANCF), this paper presents an efficient and accurate nonlinear dynamic model for this robot to elucidate the fin's flexible deformation and motion law. This model considers material, geometric, and boundary nonlinearities, utilizing ANCF thin plate elements and reference nodes to individually describe the fin-surface and fin-rays of the undulatory fin. Then, by using the master-slave technique, a frictional contact formulation for the fin and the ground is proposed. Furthermore, we conduct in-depth research and analysis on the formation and undulatory motion of the undulatory fin, encompassing its static deformation, static contact deformation, and frictional contact motion, and successfully obtain its responses under various conditions. Research indicates that during fin-surface motion, longitudinal sliding or a tendency for sliding at the contact points results in the undulatory fin moving in a crawling gait. The proposed theoretical model correctly captures the fin's complex nonlinear deformations and frictional characteristics and reveals its ground locomotion mechanism, whose effectiveness and superiority are validated through numerical examples and experiments.

Tracing the evolution of the world's first mined bauxite from palaeotopography to pyritization: Insights from Minjera deposits, Istria, Croatia

The Minjera bauxites are the first analysed and mined bauxites in the world. They are a group of pyritised bauxites situated in northern Istria, developed during the subaerial exposure phase which marked a major part of the Late Cretaceous and Palaeocene in northern Istria. In this study, the morphology, petrography, mineralogy, geochemistry as well as stable sulphur isotopes of the D-1 and D-15 deposits from Minjera were studied, as well as the evolution of their bedrock and cover. This study found that those two deposits differ in morphology, mineralogy and geochemistry as a consequence of their different palaeotopographical positions, with the D-1 deposit located at a higher position at the time of its formation compared to D-15, which led to the higher degree of leaching and desilicification in the D-1 deposit. The pyritisation in the studied deposits was a multi-phase process, which began with the deposition of framboidal pyrite and micrometre-sized anhedral pyrite, over which colloform pyrite was precipitated. This indicates that the solutions were initially supersaturated with iron sulphide, saturation of which subsequently changed, as finally euhedral, dendritic and acicular pyrite were deposited, indicating undersaturated conditions. The final stage was marked by deposition of pyrite veins. This formational sequence of pyrites is also supported by stable sulphur isotopes, as the δ34S values exhibit a wide range from -40.86 to 2.32 ‰, where lower values indicate an open system with an unrestricted sulphate supply in which supersaturated conditions could have been achieved, while the higher values indicate a change towards a closed system with limited sulphate supply. The organic matter necessary for microbial sulphate reduction was derived from the marshy environment established atop of the bauxite. The initial flooding started in the Palaeocene, with the first part of the sequence being deposited under lacustrine conditions, which changed towards fully marine with the deposition of Foraminiferal limestones.

A new endangered species of Caperonia (Acalyphoideae, Euphorbiaceae) from South Brazil, with morphological and phylogenetic support

Caperonia (Acalyphoideae, Euphorbiaceae) is a monophyletic genus with 36 species naturally distributed in Latin America, Africa, and Madagascar. Its greatest diversity occurs in South America, where 28 species are found. Caperonia species are herbs or subshrubs that occur exclusively in open marshy environments. Here, we describe Caperonia itapevae, a new endangered species known from a single record from South Brazil, based on extensive morphological study and phylogenetic data.

THE STRUCTURE AND HYDROLOGY OF THE EARLY DYNASTIC CITY OF LAGASH (TELL AL-HIBA) FROM SATELLITE AND AERIAL IMAGES

Satellite imagery and UAV (drone) photos taken at Lagash (modern Tell al-Hiba) after rainstorms and at times of elevated soil moisture show dense near-surface architecture that dates mostly to the Early Dynastic III period (c. 2600–2350 BCE) and covers several hundred hectares. Archaeological knowledge of Mesopotamian urban structure has mostly been limited to isolated excavated neighbourhoods, such as at third millennium BCE Tutub (Khafajah) or Eshnunna (Tell Asmar), and early second millennium BCE Ur (Tell al-Muqayyar). The morphology of Tell al-Hiba and the quality of the imagery sets create a unique situation that enables the reconstruction and comparison of neighbourhoods across almost the whole of the city of Lagash. Mapping of near-surface architectural remains, streets, and water features reveals a discontinuous city located within a watery, possibly marshy environment.

Puberty in pre‐Roman times: A bioarchaeological study of Etruscan‐Samnite adolescents from Pontecagnano (southern Italy)

AbstractObjectivesPuberty is a crucial part of life, representing the biological transition from childhood to adulthood. With the aim of expanding current knowledge of pubertal development and the life course in past populations, this study provides the first investigation of puberty in pre‐Roman Italy.Materials and methodsNine skeletal and dental puberty indicators were assessed in a sample of 84 Etruscan and Samnite individuals (8.0–23.9 years) from Pontecagnano (southern Italy, seventh–fourth centuries BC) to garner insights into the timing and duration of different pubertal stages.ResultsAdolescents from Pontecagnano entered puberty at 10–12 years and completed pubertal development at approximately 20–21 years. Menarche occurred between 14 and 17 years. Remarkable variability in pubertal timing and an overall prolonged pubertal tempo were observed. Unexpectedly, females completed puberty at the same age as males.DiscussionThe onset and completion of puberty in Pontecagnano are mostly in line with pubertal trends emerging from other bioarchaeological studies and historical sources. The considerable inter‐individual variability in pubertal timing seen at the site probably reflects its great sociocultural heterogeneity, whilst the prolonged pubertal tempo could represent an adaptive mechanism in response to environmental disruptors. These may have included endemic diseases characteristic of Pontecagnano's marshy environment and pollutants produced by the Etruscan and Samnite metallurgical industries. Moreover, the role of catch‐up growth in favouring better pregnancy outcomes could explain why female puberty appears particularly stretched. The importance of exploring pubertal development in past societies without culturally biased assumptions is emphasised.

Organic biogeochemical study of deeper southeastern Bengal Basin sediments in West Bengal, India

Organic biogeochemical study of deeper southeastern Bengal Basin sediments in West Bengal, India

The paleoenvironment and depositional context of the Sumerian site of Abu Tbeirah (Nasiriyah, southern Mesopotamia, Iraq)

AbstractThe Sumerian culture flourished within the Tigris and Euphrates rivers floodplains and along their deltaic systems, which ca. 6000 yr were located ~250–260 km inland from the present Persian Gulf. Here, large floodplains and marshes were crossed by an intricate network of channels where several human settlements developed. In this paper, we describe in detail the paleoenvironmental context where the site of Abu Tbeirah (third millennium BC) developed, near the Sumerian capital of Ur. Our interdisciplinary approach, based on remote sensing and the geomorphological study of the area, as well as on sedimentological, paleontological, and paleobotanical analyses of trenches and boreholes deposits, reveals that the site developed along a sinuous channel in a floodplain and marshy environment, where several crevasse splays occurred. This channel was cut off following a flood event. The abandoned portion of the channel was exploited by residents and used as a small river harbor. Our research contributes to better define how the landscape of the site changed over the course of its history and how humans exploited water resources of the area during occupation of the site, a process that was pivotal for the development of the Sumerian culture.

Vegetation and environmental changes since the Last Glacial Maximum inferred from a lake core from Saiyong Co, central Tibetan Plateau

Pollen and grain-size records from a small lake (Saiyong Co) in the source region of the Yangtze River, central Tibetan Plateau are presented and used to reveal vegetation and lake environmental history since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Results indicate that the Saiyong Co basin was a marshy environment with sparse vegetation cover from 21.3 to 6.6 cal. ka BP, before becoming a lake. Highest water level is inferred for 3.9–3.4 cal. ka BP followed by a gradual drying up until 100 years ago. Since then, the lake level has begun to rise again. Pollen spectra are dominated by Artemisia, Poaceae and Cyperaceae, and vegetation changes are mainly reflected by changes in the proportion of these three taxa, especially Artemisia and Cyperaceae. Two major events occurred at 3.9 cal. ka BP and 1.2 cal. ka BP, in response to climate change. Our results also reveal that lake-level changes affect the interpretation of the pollen assemblages due to the relationship between lake size and the pollen source area. Local pollen became the dominant component in pollen assemblages at 0.6 cal. ka BP when the lake level fell to below a certain depth. A higher percentage of Cyperaceae marks the lake’s retreat and reflects the local vegetation around Saiyong Co during 0.6 to ~0.1 cal. ka BP. In the last 100 years, a high value of Cyperaceae is linked to a wetter climate with no obvious evidence for human activities. Our results have important implications for the interpretation of fossil pollen assemblages from small lakes as the size of the lake through its history also needs to be known to prevent erroneous interpretations of the pollen data.

Root anatomy, growth, and development of Typha domingensis Pers. (Typhaceae) and their relationship with cadmium absorption, accumulation, and tolerance.

Typha domingensis Pers. is a plant that grows in marshy environments, where cadmium (Cd) accumulates. The root is the first organ that comes into contact with the metal. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Cd on the roots of T. domingensis. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse using different Cd concentrations: (1) 0µM (control), (2) 10µM, and (3) 50µM, with 10 replicates for 90days. The plants were placed in plastic containers containing 5 L of nutrient solution modified with the different Cd concentrations. At the end of the experiment, the roots were measured, sampled, fixed, and subjected to usual plant microtechniques. The slides were observed and photographed under light microscopy and analyzed in ImageJ software. To measure Cd absorption, atomic-absorption spectrometry was used. The data were subjected to analysis of variance and comparison of means by the Scott-Knott test at P < 0.05. When exposed to 50µM of Cd, the roots accumulated 99.35% of the Cd. At this concentration, there was a reduction in the exodermis but there was an increase in the diameter of the cortical cells and in the proportion of aerenchyma in the cortex. There was an increase in the root cap, which guaranteed the protection of the primary meristems. Therefore, T. domingensis adjusts its root anatomy improving the Cd tolerance and shows potential for phytoremediation purposes.

THE SENSITIVITY OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION FOR LAND USES AND TOPOGRAPHY IN AREA OF CERRADO BIOME – BRAZIL

Evapotranspiration (ET) is a crucial element in the spatiotemporal dynamics of moisture, energy, and heat, and is related to climatic, pedogeomorphological, and phytophysiognomic aspects of the landscape. Therefore, estimating ET requires dynamic and integrated temporal analysis with biophysical landscape factors. The study aimed to analyze the behavior of ET through the analysis of land use and land cover and topographic in time series. The Simple Algorithm for Evapotranspiration Recovery (SAFER) model was used to obtain the variable ET in the periods of 01/21, 02/22, 05/13 and 06/30/2019 (variables). A database of explanatory covariates was constructed, including land use and land cover, satellite image data (Landsat-8) and digital elevation model (SRTM). The values of variables and covariates were extracted into a grid of points and separated for three altimetric conditions, and the linear Gaussian Models (GLM) were applied to the point data. The most explanatory spectral covariates for the ET variation were Albedo and Surface Temperature. And the covariates related to topography were Digital Elevation Model and Topographic Moisture Index. In general, the wet period presents a higher ET rate (2.06 mm d-¹). Forests generated the highest ET regardless of period (1.62 mm d-¹ to 4.03 mm d-¹). Elevated topography also influences the increase in ET in relation to the same lower altimetry classes (A2 and A3). This influence is associated with the altitude dynamics and intrinsic elements of the region, such as the marshy environment in the A3 region, where the highest ET values occurred. This work stands out from its peers for addressing the influence of landscape aspects on the knowledge of evapotranspiration variation, a vanguard theme in the scope of spatial analysis.

New species and occurrences of Caperonia (Euphorbiaceae) for South America

Caperonia (Ditaxinae, Euphorbiaceae) has ca. 34 species distributed in the Americas and Africa, with approximately 26 of them occurring in South America. The species are exclusively of open marshy environments. The new species Caperonia amarumayu and C. maracaibensis, from Bolivia and Venezuela respectively, are hereby described. We also designate a lectotype, and report two new occurrences of C. zaponzeta for Bolivia and Brazil.

Phenology and thermal requirements of the species Cyperus difformis L. in southern Brazil

Cyperus difformis L. is a Cyperaceae, annual, of natural occurrence in marshy environments in southern Brazil, considered a weed in irrigated rice crops. Studies on its development are scarce, especially regarding its cycle and thermal requirements. Therefore, the objective of this work was to determine the base temperature, the thermal sum and the duration of the different sub-periods of the biological cycle of the species. The experiment was carried out at the Campus of the Universidade Federal de Santa Maria – UFSM, Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, in four sowing seasons. In a completely delineated design and factorial scheme involving five soil water conditions (water depth and 50% soil water retention capacity [WRC]) from the sowing, water depth and 50% WRC introduced 21 days after emergence and 100% WRC during the whole cycle, with six repetitions each. Each experimental unit consisted of a cultivated in pot plant with 11 L capacity filled with soil. The cycle of the plants was subdivided into the sowing-emergence sub-periods, emergence-emission of the floral tassel and emission of the floral-maturing physiological tassel, being estimated the thermal requirements for the species. The conditions of the soil water condition the base temperature, the sum of the degree-days and the duration of the species cycle. The base temperature varies for each treatment, the sum of degrees-day decreases with the water deficit and the plants under flood accelerate the biological cycle.

Radiocarbon dating distal tephra from the Early Bronze Age Avellino eruption (EU-5) in the coastal basins of southern Lazio (Italy): Uncertainties, results, and implications for dating distal tephra

Distal tephra from the major Somma-Vesuvius Avellino (AV) eruption is widespread in the coastal basins of Southern Lazio (Central Italy). Dated to 1995 ± 10 cal yr BC in 2011, later on doubts arose about the reliability of this frequently cited age. This led to a major effort to date AV tephra holding sections, based on a thorough methodological approach. Various aspects were studied to identify sections yielding reliable 14 C ages, including bioturbation, inbuilt age, and variable sediment accumulation rate. Lowered rates upon deposition of tephra, particularly in anoxic marshy environments and attributed to toxic F contents, showed up as sharp increases in pollen density. The ‘sampling error’ was quantified for specific sedimentary environments and derived from coring data and published data on accumulation rates for similar Central Mediterranean sites. Next, two Bayesian analyses were performed, a traditional using the full set of samples and a novel, based on samples that were deemed as suitable (no bioturbation, inbuilt age, etc.) and of which the age was corrected for the sampling error. The age obtained by the novel analysis had the smallest range (1909–1868 cal yr BC), differs about a century, and is virtually identical to the ages published by Passariello et al. (2009) and Alessandri (2019). The earlier found age (2011) is ascribed to a statistical coincidence. The results solve a long debate on the age of the AV eruption, which is the youngest of the three major eruptions in the Central Mediterranean Bronze Age. Ages of the other two, the Agnano Mt Spina (Phlegrean) and FL eruption (Etna), are still uncertain and disputed. This study illustrates the need for a thorough approach in 14 C dating tephra holding sediment archives in the Central Mediterranean, and employed a methodology that can be applied in such approach. Attention is called for potentially toxic fluorine concentrations in Campanian tephra, which may have had a serious impact on the contemporary environment and induced chronological hiatuses, but hitherto were not reported for the early tephra. • New date Avellino eruption ends controversy about its age: c. 1890 cal BCE. • Sample error quantified and applied in Bayesian analysis of 14 C dates. • Reduced post-tephra sediment accumulation visible in pollen density profiles. • F in distal Avellino tephra possibly toxic for contemporary marshy ecosystems.

Human settlement and landscape dynamics on the coastline south of the Gironde estuary (SW France): A multi-proxy approach

The Gironde estuary in SW France is the largest in Western Europe and has attracted human populations since prehistoric times. From the 1970s to the 1990s, intense archaeological research was undertaken on the long and highly dynamic coastline just south of the estuary mouth. In recent years, the combined action of increased coastal erosion and human pressure has proved a serious threat to the integrity of archaeological sites in the area. As a consequence, a whole array of previously unrecorded archaeological remains across the intertidal zone and coastal strip is being exposed. In this context, innovative interdisciplinary research since 2014 is yielding new information about the settlement and landscape dynamics and about the long-term interaction between human societies and the environment. The sedimentary context and the exceptional preservation conditions of organic remains have made possible a multi-proxy approach combining archaeological, geomorphological, palaeobiological, and archaeoentomological methods. In this paper we discuss the different approaches and the way they jointly contribute to the project. The results obtained so far from this multi-proxy approach challenge the traditional view of the historic occupation and the landscape dynamics around the Gironde estuary from prehistoric times to antiquity. They show that the intense occupation of this area during certain periods of human history is related to the development of marshy environments, which can now be analyzed at higher temporal resolution owing to this approach.

The Plants associated with aquatic and marshy environments in the state of Paraíba, northeastern Brazil

We present a list of aquatic and wetland plant species from the state of Paraíba, Brazil, based on the collections deposited in national and international herbaria. We identified 290 species belonging to 61 families. The checklist includes habit, localities of the collections in the state of Paraíba, and geographic distribution of each species. The amphibious habit was the most prevalent and the Sertão (semiarid inland region) was the region with the greatest collection effort. New occurrences have been registered for the state (14 species). Although our data reveal a high plant richness, we relate this richness to increased field expeditions.

Ecological adaptations influence the susceptibility of plants in the genus Zantedeschia to soft rot Pectobacterium spp.

Soft rot disease caused by Pectobacterium spp. is responsible for severe agricultural losses in potato, vegetables, and ornamentals. The genus Zantedeschia includes two botanical groups of tuberous ornamental flowers that are highly susceptible to the disease. Previous studies revealed that Z. aethiopica, a member of the section Zantedeschia, is significantly more resistant to Pectobacterium spp. than members of the same genus that belong to the section Aestivae. During early infection, we found different patterns of bacterial colonization on leaves of hosts belonging to the different sections. Similar patterns of bacterial colonization were observed on polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) artificial inert replicas of leaf surfaces. The replicas confirmed the physical effect of leaf texture, in addition to a biochemical plant–bacterium interaction. The differential patterns may be associated with the greater roughness of the abaxial leaf surfaces of Aestivae group that have evolutionarily adapted to mountainous environments, as compared to Zantedeschia group species that have adapted to warm, marshy environments. Transverse leaf sections also revealed compact aerenchyma and reduced the total volume of leaf tissue air spaces in Aestivae members. Finally, an analysis of defense marker genes revealed differential expression patterns in response to infection, with significantly higher levels of lipoxygenase 2 (lox2) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (pal) observed in the more resistant Z. aethiopica, suggesting greater activation of induced systemic resistance (ISR) mechanisms in this group. The use of Zantedeschia as a model plant sheds light on how natural ecological adaptations may underlay resistance to bacterial soft rot in cultivated agricultural environments.

Specialized cattle farming in the Neolithic Rhine-Meuse Delta: Results from zooarchaeological and stable isotope (δ18O, δ13C, δ15N) analyses.

Schipluiden (3630–3380 cal BC), the earliest known year-round settlement in the Rhine-Meuse Delta in the Netherlands, is a key site for addressing the nature of Neolithic subsistence in the wetlands of northwestern Europe. A preliminary zooarchaeological study suggested that cattle husbandry was a major activity at Schipluiden. In contrast, stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analyses of human remains from the site indicated a marine-oriented diet, implying that the Mesolithic-Neolithic dietary transition continued well into the mid-4th Millennium BC in this region. Here, we re-investigate the role and nature of cattle husbandry at Neolithic Schipluiden using mortality profiles and stable isotope analysis (δ18O, δ13C, δ15N) of animal bone collagen and tooth enamel. The age-at-death analysis suggests that cattle were managed for both meat and milk production. The δ18O and δ13C analysis of tooth enamel provide evidence that calving spread over five-and-a-half-months, which would have led to a longer availability of milk throughout the year. Cattle were grazing in open, marshy environments near the site and winter foddering was practiced occasionally. The faunal isotopic data also reveal that the high 15N in human bone collagen is more likely to signal the consumption of products from cattle that grazed on 15N-enriched salt marsh plants around the site, rather than a marine-oriented diet. This undermines the previous interpretation of the dietary practices at Schipluiden by showing that human diet in mid-4th millennium BC Rhine-Meuse area was fully “Neolithic”, based primarily on products from domesticates, especially cattle, with some input from wild terrestrial and aquatic resources available in their surroundings, contrary to what has been proposed before. Collating these results demonstrates a high level of investment in cattle husbandry, highlighting the social and economic importance of cattle at the lower Rhine-Meuse Delta during the 4th millennium BC.

Bird Bone Remains from Two Medieval Settlements in Debrecen (Eastern Hungary)

This paper presents results on three medieval avian bone assemblages found at Debrecen-Monostor-erdő and Debrecen-Tócó-part, respectively. Domestic chicken yielded most of the bird remains to evidence the exploitation of adult birds for egg production and flock maintenance in particular. In addition, feather harvesting and fat production could have been the target of goose (and possibly duck) husbandry. Although the goose bone sizes resemble the greylag goose, the keeping of an unimproved form of domestic goose rather than the hunting of the wild ancestor is suggested by the structure of the assemblage and the presence of healed bones. Wild birds seem to have been rarely consumed by the settlers of the two villages, but the feathers or wings or carcasses of diurnal birds of prey and crows may have been used for special purposes. Either killed for their symbolic meaning or only persecuted for protecting the backyard animals, the red kite (Milvus milvus) and the hen harrier (Circus cyaneus) represent new species for the medieval avifauna of Hungary, similarly to the Northern shoveler (Anas clypeata) and the Northern lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) that could have been hunted in the marshy environment provided by the Tócó creek. Moreover, the use of trained saker falcon(Falco cherrug)for hawking cannot be excluded either. In addition to the exploitation of birds for the abovementioned goods and values, two needle cases made from goose bones evidence the utilization of their skeletal parts as raw material for producing artefacts as well.

The taming of the wilderness: marshes as an economic resource in 3rd millennium BC Southern Mesopotamia

The marshy environment of Southern Sumer in the 3rd millennium BC surely had an impact on the local economy that can be sought for in the written sources. The perception of marshes was however twofold: as a prosperous environment in literary compositions and as a place to be tamed for regular, state-controlled exploitation in royal inscriptions. The great majority of attestations of marshes in economic documents refer to field names, thus, probably referring to agricultural units in drained marsh areas. On the other hand, typical marsh resources, such as reeds, fish and fowl, are widely attested in the economic documentation from 3rd millennium BC, although we can rely on very little information as to their provenance. To conclude, both literary and economic texts give hints for an interpretation of the professional figure known as ‘enku(d/r)’, usually interpreted as ‘tax-collector’ or ‘inspector of the fishery’, as an official connected with the management of wetland resources.