Maritime Security Policy Research Articles

Guardian of the Straits: Ottoman Naval Battles at the Dardanelles (1656-1915) and Implications for Turkey’s Maritime Security

This article examines four major naval battles (1656, 1657, 1807, and 1915) that took place in the Dardanelles during the Ottoman Empire period. The study analyzes the historical context, causes, course, and consequences of these battles, emphasizing the strategic importance of the Dardanelles. Furthermore, in light of the lessons drawn from these historical events, the article offers recommendations for modern Turkey's maritime security policies. By highlighting the importance of strait defense, naval power, technological superiority, and international cooperation, the article aims to contribute to Turkey's future maritime security strategies. Keywords: Dardanelles, Ottoman naval battles, maritime strategy, strait defense, Turkey's maritime security

Building Up a Sustainable Path to Maritime Security: An Analytical Framework and Its Policy Applications

Maritime security is currently a buzzword in international relations. The popularity of the term reflects an emerging consensus across the international community recognizing increasing challenges to world oceans and helps to rally support for serious efforts to cope with these challenges. However, the term is highly contested with regard to its conceptual meaning and empirical implications. The discipline of security studies provides a critical perspective revealing the state-centered ontology embedded in many of the discussions of maritime security. The complicated and intertwining nature of maritime threats in today’s world oceans demands a systematic analytical framework to comprehend and address them, a framework that moves beyond statist ontology, military means, and zero-sum mentality to a people-centered, diversified toolkit and positive-sum mentality and opens space for a common, cooperative, and comprehensive security agenda. The evolving discourse on human security and sustainable development sheds light on a possible path to approach such an agenda in an effective and sustainable manner. It has also enlightened the mandates of major international institutions and a lot of states practices in the pursuit of maritime security. Against this background, this article aims to explore the conception of maritime security and provide an analytical framework for analyzing and guiding maritime security practices and explores a feasible path towards realizing sustainable maritime security that can meet the diversified challenges emerging in global maritime space today. To this end, the article draws on the discipline of security studies over the past few decades so as to structure a rigorous analytical tool for engaging maritime security as a theoretical concept and a set of policy objectives. Applying this framework to state practices, this article discusses the case of China, examining, on the one hand, China’s understanding of maritime security and related policy practices and, on the other hand, exploring the value of the proposed policy framework as serving the foundation for bridging disagreements, forging consensus, and coordinating policy actions in the pursuit of sustained security and development in the maritime domain.

Communication Evaluation in the Maritime Security Policy in the Nias Archipelago Waters

The Nias Islands are an area that is included in the Province of North Sumatra. Nias is an archipelago area surrounded by the Indonesian Ocean. The location of the Nias Islands which are on the border increases the risk of maritime threats that might occur in the Nias Islands. The research problem is how to evaluate communication in maritime security policies in the waters of the Nias Islands. The communication factor in policy implementation includes how to communicate the implementation of maritime security between agencies in maritime security in the territorial waters of the Nias Islands. This study aims to find out how the implementation of policies and efforts in maritime security in the waters of the Nias Islands, by analyzing communication in maritime security in the territorial waters of the Nias Islands. The research uses qualitative methods by collecting data through interviews, field observations and literature studies. The results of this study were processed using the Atlas.ti application. The results of the research show that there is synergy between government agencies in charge of maritime security in the Nias Islands, but there is a need to improve communication between these agencies. This form of communication is not only carried out to carry out maritime security in the territorial waters of the Nias Islands, but also aims to carry out monitoring of marine and fishery resources. Conducting sea patrols is an activity in the form of joint communication or coordination between agencies/institutions as well as a form of implementation of RI Minister of Defense No. 13 of 2014 concerning border area security policies. Communication is the key to creating synergy between ministries/agencies so that maritime security in the waters of the Nias Islands will run effectively and create a safe maritime environment. Evaluation of communication in maritime security policies in the waters of the Nias Islands shows that there are still communication limitations that cause operational constraints.

Analysis of Indonesia's Maritime Security Strategy and Policy as the World Maritime Axis

As the largest archipelago, Indonesia should be able to utilize its potential to create prosperity for its people. In fact, the maritime sector has not been fully utilized by Indonesia. Indonesia must prioritize the goal of becoming a maritime country to restore maritime glory. This is in line with Indonesian President Joko Widodo's goal to make Indonesia the world's maritime axis. The research method used is descriptive qualitative. The World Maritime Axis is indeed a decision taken by the government to restore the nature of Indonesia as an archipelago. Until now, the World Maritime Axis has not taken the form of a document equipped with a strategy in it. The strategy becomes an 'extension' of the policy, which currently there is no World Maritime Axis Strategy because the policy is still overlapping. Currently, the World Maritime Axis is categorized as a development policy discourse whose orientation is to realize Indonesia's vision as a maritime country, so it requires a lot of attention to fix and complete this idea so that it can be categorized as a policy and implemented through a strategy.

ВПЛИВ МІЖНАРОДНОГО БЕЗПЕКОВОГО СЕРЕДОВИЩА НА ФОРМУВАННЯ МОРСЬКОЇ БЕЗПЕКОВОЇ ПОЛІТИКИ УКРАЇНИ

The article is devoted to highlighting the existing problems of the formation of the security environment in the state, including its influence on the formation of the maritime security policy of Ukraine. In the conditions of destabilization of the international security space, there is a threat of realization of security risks. European integration is an important component of the process of globalization of the modern world and the continuation of the path of modernization of Western civilization. Globalization affects security and defense policy, including in the maritime security environment. Russia, as an aggressor country, continues its political course of expansion in the Black Sea. It is important to build a strategy for ensuring security in the Black Sea by influential international organizations. In the conditions of globalization, Ukraine needs to use the advantages of the model for its own development, while remaining the object of external forces may have negative consequences.

Crisis and Differentiation in the CFSP: Leaders, Laggards and Critical Junctures

This article explores the relationship between exogenous crises and internal, formal differentiated integration in the European Union (EU) maritime foreign and security policy. Drawing on institutionalist concepts and the analytical framework in the Introduction, we argue that crises may serve as drivers of uniform rather than differentiated integration in policy areas dominated by dissent or differing needs and interests. Specifically, crises mark ‘critical junctures’ that open windows of opportunity for EU integration supporters (‘leaders’) to convince reluctant states (‘laggards’ and ‘disruptors’) to pursue further integration. To substantiate these theoretical assumptions, the article explores two case studies of integration where Member States were unlikely to agree to joint measures. The first case examines the launch of the EU anti-smuggling mission EUNAVFOR MED Sophia in response to the refugee crisis in the Mediterranean, while the second case looks at the EU’s joint actions against Turkish natural gas exploitation in Greek and Cypriot sovereign waters. Both cases use process tracing to show how, in the face of exogenous crises, ‘leaders’ in maritime foreign and security policy successfully exploited windows of opportunity to persuade formerly reluctant EU Member States to adopt common measures (This article is an output of the EUFLEX project, which has been funded by the Research Council of Norway, project number 287131). crisis, differentiated integration, European Union (EU), leaders, laggards, maritime security policies, institutionalism

Repercussions of a weak ocean governance and a non-existent maritime security policy: The resurgence of piracy and Armed Robbery in the Gulf of Mexico

ABSTRACT This paper examines piracy and armed robbery in the Gulf of Mexico, under the framework of maritime security. The results indicate that piratic attacks are most likely underreported by the Government of Mexico. The research findings documented fourteen attacks on supply vessels and offshore platforms for the first half of 2020; only three relevant attacks were officially reported in the same period by the vessel´s (foreign) flag jurisdiction. However, the Maritime Authority of Mexico did not change the security level at any of the ports or territorial sea during the incidents. The maritime security level remained the same (level 1) during 2020, despite several alerts launched by the international maritime community. Recommendations by the respondents (shipmasters, SSO, CSO and PFSO) recommended that a permanent increased security level (level 2) should be implemented in the Southern part of the Gulf of Mexico until this specific problem is resolved. Participants suggested additional special measures to tackle the problem including the evaluation to class the area as a High Risk Area (HRA) and the establishment of a Memorandum of Agreement (MOU), for international cooperation and capacity building with the US Coastguard authorities to promote necessary collaboration towards effectively dealing with these security threats.

THE JAPANESE COAST GUARD’S OPERATIONALIZED HEDGING STRATEGY IN THE EAST CHINA SEA

Qualitative evidence from nearly two dozen sources are used to explain how and why an energized, retooled, and restructured Japanese Coast Guard can serve as the primary enabler of an updated Japanese maritime security policy. This study examines the efforts associated with improving Japan’s maritime security in the East China Sea against the pressure points of an assertive Chinese naval apparatus, as well as the country’s enduring security partnership with the U.S. This research showcases both how, and more importantly, why, a specific Japanese Coast Guard-related policy and operational capability can be effective when developed and cultivated from a tailored hedging strategy. This study finds Japan’s best bet for long-term stability and absolute security gain lies in operationalizing a varied hedging strategy through a capable and resourced coast guard.

China’s expanding national interests in the broader Red Sea arena

This article seeks to explain the importance of the broader Red Sea arena and what national interests China particularly owns within that specific region. China has been making its presence felt in the region, in the past few years, especially after Beijing decided to establish its very first foreign naval base in Djibouti. This research paper shows that the specific region holds significance in economic, security, and political dimensions. That being said, China’s national interests in this study are further classified into geoeconomic, geo-security, and geo-political dimensions. Through the theoretical framework of national interest, maritime security, and foreign policy, this study will explain what makes this broader Red Sea arena important and how it is related with China’s expanding national interests surrounding the said region. The paper concludes that China’s global presence in the broader Red Sea arena can be justified based on the importance that the mentioned region holds as well as China’s expanding global interests which already exceed Beijing’s national territory itself. In that sense, maritime security has also become an important aspect to identify China’s behaviour in the region. The confirmation of such a conclusion is drawn from China’s several foreign policy initiatives, executed to protect and secure its own interests.

SOUTH AFRICA’S OPERATION PHAKISA: DEVELOPMENT WITHOUT SECURITY?

In the years since the end of the Cold War, a growing body of literature has emerged discussing the nexus between development and security, holding that these are linked closely and mutually reinforcing. Thinking around the security–development nexus has been extended into the maritime domain, with an increasing recognition of the connection and interdependence of the land and sea, and that secure seas are seen as a vital condition for positive development trajectories emanating from the Blue Economy. This sentiment is increasingly reflected in domestic and regional maritime security strategies and policies, including in the African Union’s African Integrated Maritime Strategy 2050 (AIMS 2050). Despite its leadership in developing a maritime security strategy for the Southern African Development Community (SADC), it can be argued that security is dangerously underplayed in South Africa’s key maritime project, Operation Phakisa. This article presents an analysis of the development–security nexus at sea, an assessment of South Africa’s approach to its maritime security, and the results of a careful examination of Operation Phakisa. The article concludes that there is an urgent need for a review of South Africa’s maritime arena, to truly understand challenges emanating from the sea and how these will affect the development South Africa wishes to derive from it.

SOUTH AFRICA’S MARITIME FOREIGN POLICY: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

In October 2017, South Africa assumed the prestigious chair of the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) for two years. At the time, observers questioned whether this was geared to lead and extract maximum benefit for its members and the country itself. The country’s foreign policy paper of 2011 noted the existence of the Indian Ocean Rim (IOR) but proposed no integrated strategic plans, save to call for a maritime security policy for Africa. The observers did not have to wait long for a response. At the opening of the seventeenth meeting of the IORA Council of Ministers in October, former South African Minister of International Relations and Co-operation, Ms Maite Nkoana-Mashabane, laid out a strategy to promote the Indian Ocean as a zone of peace, stability and development. In doing so, she noted three priorities: maritime safety and security, enhanced disaster risk management, and sustainable and responsible fisheries management. Soon after, tropical Cyclone Idai hit Africa.

Geopolitics of Portugal in Atlantic Sea

Neo-realism argues that states belong to an anarchic world in which there is no great power governing on it. State is required to have survival capability in a self-help system. Inter-state relations may encourage a country to exercise their power as a means of survival in an anarchist world. The Atlantic Sea plays a vital role in maintaining international stability and security to balance the power distribution within the region. Since days of discovery, Portugal have shown their capabilities in navigating the sea, through high seas, islands and across continents in looking for most-wanted sources at the time, spices. They have cemented their dominance at various strategic points along international shipping lanes. Further, having the longest coastline in Europe makes Portugal´s politics in maritime realm quite decisive. Based on the neo-realism perspective developed by Kenneth Waltz, the author outlines the strategic steps adopted by Portuguese towards transition of global power during post World-War II. This article reveals that construction of Portuguese national identity determines their national interest in regards of their foreign policy in maritime security policy.

Food security and maritime security: A new challenge for the European Union's ocean policy

This paper revolves around the role that food-from-the-sea plays in European maritime security. It aims to illustrate the links between food, fisheries, and maritime security by considering these as coexisting attributes of security in general and of maritime (in)security, in particular. The article analyzes three dimensions of this issue: the links between food security, maritime security and maritime policy; the principles that inspire the Common Fisheries Policy and their implications for the food system; and the complexity involved in the trade relations between European markets (EU) and non European suppliers (the case of Cape Verde). The relevant conclusions that can be established are i) the EU's food security policy shows little sign of changing the course of its fisheries policy objectives; ii) The different dimensions of the relationship between fisheries and food security should not be neglected. In fact, from a local perspective, the concept of food sovereignty could be applied to some of the European Union's coastal territories. Therefore, European decision-makers should not ignore the fact that subsistence fisheries are still a strategy in some European coastal areas, where access to maritime resources is the key to their economies.

Selection of Marine Security Policy using Fuzzy-AHP TOPSIS Hybrid Approach

The research was focused on the integration of Fuzzy set theory with Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) to choose the optimum maritime security policy to achieve Indonesia recognition as the world's maritime axis. The method used is AHP with fuzzy based enhancement. Here, the weight of each criterion is calculated to overcome the criticism of the scale of unbalanced rating, uncertainty, and inaccuracy in the pairwise of comparison process. The best recommendation for Indonesian maritime policies is multi task single agency which is greatly infuenced by several factors such as technology, regulations, infrastructure, economic, politic, and socio-culture. The finding shows that the hybrid approach is able to produce the best recommendation for Indonesian maritime security policy.

Integrating the procedures of reporting port security incidents and the follow-up investigation to build a national maritime security policy: a case study in Mexico

This paper aims to improve port security measures in developing countries via integrating the procedures of incident reporting and the associated follow up investigation, hinging on the Mexican experience. The analysis examined port security at Mexican ports, where stakeholders were interviewed on the subject to identify the challenges and opportunities for security incident reporting, updating of security incident records and facilitation of the follow up investigation. Then, a qualitative security model was developed; under this new framework, incident reporting, incident investigation, the re-assessment of security threats through the Port Facility Security Assessment (PFSA) and the necessary modifications to the Port Facility Security Plans (PFSP) were all integrated. These subjects were all incorporated into a “transparent port security incident reporting tool”. This tool was implemented at all ports in Mexico, where the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code) applies, by the National Maritime Authority. This demonstrated in a real case through “action research”, the improvement of port security framework in the country. Measurements were executed every quarter throughout the year 2017 and the incident-reporting instrument was adjusted accordingly. The results demonstrated a significant improvement in reporting security incidents, with the increase from absolutely nothing (zero) to 57 providing a strong indicator of success. In addition, 56% of those reported maritime incidents were also associated with recommendations to be integrated into the PFSA and respective PFSP. Collecting accurate and immediate information/evidence material while reporting security incidents is crucial for effective incident investigation and continuous improvement of the PFSP.

Comparing China’s Claims and Policies in the East and South China Seas: Implications for Regional Security

What is the long-term impact of China’s territorial and maritime security policy in East Asia on regional security? To address this question, we compared China’s claims and actual policies related to the East China Sea and South China Sea and explored the motivations behind Beijing’s position and behaviour in the two disputes. More specifically, we examined a few interrelated issues: (a) similarities and differences in China’s claims in these two disputes from historical and legal perspectives, (b) China’s strategic and security calculations and its changing tactics in handing these two disputes in the past few years and (c) the major factors affecting China’s behaviour in the two disputes. Our conclusion is that China is unlikely to make any major concessions in the near future, and that regional security in East Asia will remain fraught with many uncertainties for a fairly long period of time.

Impact of maritime security policies on the marine ecosystem

ABSTRACTThe maritime piracy issue drew significant global attention post-2012. The response from the major nations, even those geographically distant from the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), has been highly pro-active. Two important changes that are relevant to this paper are the increased deployment of multi-national naval forces for anti-piracy operations and also re-routing of the shipping lanes closer to the shores. The acoustic impact of these actions was completely ignored but their impact on the marine ecosystem needs to be reviewed. A rare stranding of a blue whale in June 2015 and a Bryde's whale in January 2016, off the west coast of India, are a possible manifestation of the degraded acoustic habitat due to high levels of low-frequency ambient noise in the region. The paper presents an investigative analysis of the two reported events and their correlation with acoustic habitat degradation which may be attributable to increased shipping in the region.

Expanding India’s Maritime Domain Awareness in the Indian Ocean

Expanding India’s Maritime Domain Awareness in the Indian Ocean Darshana M. Baruah (bio) The Indian Ocean is an area of primary importance to the Indian Navy and has generally been free of conflict compared with the Pacific. India’s location naturally makes its navy one of the key players in the region and an important security provider for the Indian Ocean community. In recent years, the country has significantly focused on improving its maritime domain awareness (MDA) in response to maritime security threats in coastal waters and much farther afield, and this initiative is now increasingly being driven by China’s presence in the Indian Ocean. India’s image as a regional leader was badly damaged when targets in Mumbai, India’s financial hub, were attacked from the sea on November 26, 2008. The attacks were carried out by nonstate actors originating from Pakistan and involved the perpetrators hijacking an Indian fishing vessel and sailing to Mumbai. These attacks brought to the forefront vulnerabilities in India’s defense strategy and led to a reorientation of its maritime security policies to place much greater emphasis on MDA. India’s recently released maritime security strategy emphasizes MDA as a critical requirement for maritime security and an essential tool to deter adversaries and maintain a strategic advantage.1 It is a broad concept, involving awareness of the positions and intentions of all actors (whether friendly, hostile, or neutral) and in all dimensions (on, over, and under the seas). India’s vision of MDA now extends beyond its coastal waters and exclusive economic zone (EEZ) to cover much of the Indian Ocean. While India largely operates by itself in MDA, it will increasingly need to cooperate with key partners, including the United States. This essay looks at India’s evolving interest in MDA and concludes that the country needs to work more closely with its regional friends and develop a new maritime outlook in the face of a rapidly changing geopolitical landscape in the Indian Ocean region. [End Page 49] The Impact of the Mumbai Attacks on India’s MDA The 2008 Mumbai attacks made clear that India had significant gaps in its coastal surveillance and intelligence capabilities, as well as failures in intelligence sharing with friendly states. The November 26 attacks compelled India’s Ministry of Defence to pay more attention to the country’s maritime needs and gave considerable impetus to the Indian Navy to strengthen its MDA capabilities. The primary goal became covering India’s coastal waters, a major task given that the coastline is approximately 7,500 square kilometers. The first result of the attack was the establishment of the National Committee for Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security, headed by the cabinet secretary, with overall responsibility for the national MDA project. Implementation of the project is led by the Indian Navy with assistance from the coast guard, marine police, and other state and central agencies. The first phase of the project was to provide seamless coverage of India’s coast, including the installation of a chain of 74 automatic identification system receivers along the coast and 46 coastal radars along the mainland and the islands.2 The second result of the attack was that in 2014 the Ministry of Defence launched the Information Management and Analysis Centre and the National Command Control Communication and Intelligence Network.3 This network collates data on all vessels operating near the Indian coast from multiple technical sources, including the automatic identification system and radar chain. These inputs are then fused and analyzed at the national MDA center, which disseminates a common operating picture for coastal security to 51 nodes of the navy and coast guard along the Indian coast. Joint operation centers have also been established at Mumbai, Vishakhapatnam, Kochi, and Port Blair. Expanding the Scope of India’s MDA in the Indian Ocean India has also been giving greater attention to improving its MDA both within its EEZ and in more remote areas of the Indian Ocean. These efforts will likely require coordination and collaboration with friendly states. [End Page 50] India may still be deciding on its role in the larger maritime domain, but its aspirations in the Indian Ocean are...

Potential Impacts of Maritime Risk on Maritime Traffic Flows and Regional Economies: Case Study at the Straits of Malacca and Singapore

This paper analyzes the vulnerability of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore (SoMS) to maritime risks. The impacts of the risk events on international cargo flows, transshipment at major ports, and domestic economies are simulated with an international cargo traffic simulation model and a spatial general equilibrium model. Both container cargoes and dry/liquid cargoes are covered. Three cases are analyzed: sea-lane blockade at the SoMS, stop of the service at Singapore Port, and increase of loading/unloading time at all ports in the world. Results show that the risks which occur at the SoMS impact on the economies in the whole Asia; container carriers may change transshipment ports — from littoral ports to other East Asian ports — if the risk events were to actually occur; and the economic impacts of the risk events depend on the cases and the countries. Finally, the implication to the maritime security policy is discussed.

Japan's strategic pivot south: diversifying the dual hedge

Tensions between Japan and its neighbors pose a significant problem for the viability of Japan’s strategic ‘dual hedge’ between China and the United States. Japan’s response has been to embrace renewed US commitment to the region while initiating comprehensive strategic partnerships in military, economic, and political spheres with nations ‘south’ of its traditional domain of strategic interest. Strengthened relationships with Southeast Asian nations, India, and Australia may turn out to be crucial for Japan as it will enable Japan to manage its security affairs without having to depart from its long-cultivated maritime security policy, and will enable Japan to continue to pursue a neo-mercantilist economic policy while also supporting the socioeconomic development of other regional players essential for future multipolar balance. Japan’s diplomatic activities provide a useful ‘strategic contrast’ with China that will likely ensure Japan is accepted in the region. Japan’s strategic pivot is also domestically sustainable and, therefore, deserves scholarly attention.