Maritime Administration Research Articles

U.S. polar icebreakers

An interagency study of the nation's polar ice‐breaking requirements through the end of the century was recently completed. The Polar Icebreaker Requirements Study (PIRS) Group presented fleet size alternatives and recommended that the Icebreaker User Council define the capabilities required for new icebreakers. The User Council consists of representatives from the U.S. Navy, National Science Foundation, the Maritime Administration, and the U.S. Coast Guard.Polar icebreakers are needed for three basic purposes: (1) resupply of Antarctic and Greenland stations, (2) logistical support of polar operations, and (3) scientific research. One of the PIRS recommendations was that any new icebreaker designs should enhance science support while meeting the requirements for escort and logistics. The U.S. Coast Guard will soon begin the preliminary design for a new class of polar icebreakers.

Computerized Shipboard Inventory Management: The STIMS Project

Shipboard management of spare parts inventory has historically been labor intensive, ill-defined, and poorly managed. The authors' company has contracted with the Maritime Administration to create a shipboard system encompassing inventory management and requisitioning of spare parts. The system has been developed in such a manner that it is easy to manage, and can be easily adopted by other maritime corporations. The result of this project will provide significantly improved management of shipboard inventory, with a resultant decrease in vessel operating expenses.

Defining the Close-Quarters Situation at Sea

The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea contain several important terms which are open to different interpretations such as ‘safe speed’, ‘close-quarters situation’ and ‘risk of collision’. It is not possible to give exact definitions of these terms as some of the factors involved are difficult to quantify but there is little doubt that mariners would welcome some official guidance on their application.The following paper by Dr Hilgert proposes a method of defining ‘close-quarters situation’ in terms of the principal factors which apply. The method is of particular interest because it is actually used by the maritime administration of one government and has been submitted to the International Maritime Organization for consideration. The IMO Sub-Committee on Safety of Navigation has taken note of the suggested approach and has invited comments.It is suggested in the paper that a simplified version of close-quarters situation could be determined in terms of the quantifiable parameters of speed, manoeuvrability and angle of approach. The method could be used to establish minimum values of a close-quarters situation but other factors would have to be taken into account such as the close presence of navigational hazards or other vessels, radar performance including the effect of errors and the desirability of keeping out of audible range of the fog signals of an approaching vessel.Despite some obvious limitations the method serves to indicate the least values which should be used and the paper contributes to a better understanding of this aspect of the avoidance of collision at sea.

Office of Emergency Transportation: Mission and function

The Department of Transportation's Office of Emergency Transportation (OET) provides emergency resource management planning for civil transportation in crisis situations. Crises, including the worst-case emergency, war, require management of the department's operating elements: the U.S. Coast Guard, the Federal Aviation Administration, the Urban Mass Transportation Administration, and the Maritime Administration, and coordination with outside transportation agencies. The latter include the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Civil Aeronautics Board, the Corps of Engineers, the Civil Works Rivers and Harbors Division, and the Tennessee Valley Authority. During the 1979 energy crisis, OET served as a communications center to facilitate the national movement of fuel for all transportation modes.

COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF ADVANCED MARINE VEHICLES FOR EXPRESS SHIPPING

ABSTRACTThis paper will present the results of a marketing, engineering, and economic analysis of advanced marine vehicles done by IMA Resources, Inc. and RMI, Inc., in support of a Maritime Administration project to study “Multimode Express Shipping”. The study was conducted in 1981 and examined the economic benefits of using advanced marine vehicles as express cargo vessels in domestic and international service. Commodity characteristics, desirable express carrier rates, and potential high payoff service and route alternatives were identified. Advanced marine vehicles were surveyed and sized to meet desirable deadweight and block speed objectives. The costs of operating these craft on a variety of trade routes were calculated using an advanced marine vehicle economic analysis program. Revenues, expenses, break‐even, profit and loss, cash flow requirements, tax summary and economic indicators (i.e., cost/ton – mile, etc.) were projected over the expected life of the vehicles as was return on investment. Traffic density and market penetration considerations narrowed the field of choice to smaller sized advanced marine vehicle carriers (i.e., 50 and 250 ton deadweight) and to three international and five domestic routes.

Sex in the Shipyards: An Assessment of Affirmative Action Policy

Affirmative action is one of the federal government's major tools to overcome job discrimination. Its purpose is to ensure equal employment opportunity in state and local governments, in federal agencies and in private firms holding or seeking federal contracts of $10,000 or more.' Thus far, there has been no data-based determination of whether federal affirmative action oversight has a divergent impact on public and non-public organizations. This study begins to explore this question. It examines the respective effects of Maritime Administration and Civil Service Commission compliance on female/male employment patterns in private and Naval blue-collar shipyard jobs between 1972 and 1977. In 1972 Maritime started to require private shipyard affirmative action plans to include goals for women. Until that time, oversight concentrated on improving job opportunities for black males.2 In 1973 Civil Service regulations authorized federal agencies to include goals and timetables for women as well as minorities.3 In October, 1978 the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) removed affirmative action monitoring from the 16 agencies responsible for this task and began to oversee the private sector directly.4 In January, 1979 affirmative action supervision of federal agencies was transferred from the Civil Service Commission to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).5 The intent of these shifts is to improve affirmative action oversight. Although Maritime and Civil Service no longer oversee affirmative action programs, this study draws attention to factors that are likely to enhance and/or hinder the success of OFCCP and EEOC compliance activities. Existing data-based research assessing the impact of affirmative action compliance concentrates on changes in employment and/or wage patterns for minorities and women in either private businesses, the federal government, or state and local governments. Some investigations of the private sector employ cross-sectional analysis to compare firms holding government contracts, which are therefore subject to affirmative action

Evaluation of Concepts for Improved Controllability of Tank Vessels

There is interest in the potential for reducing tank vessel collision, ramming and grounding (CRG) casualties by improving the inherent controllability of the vessel. This paper reports on studies conducted for the Maritime Administration in which various concepts for improving the controllability of tank vessels were investigated. A detailed study of U.S. Coast Guard tanker CRG casualty data and reports covering a five-year period was carried out to determine typical casualty situations and to make an initial assessment of the potential effects of improved controllability. From this effort, various measures of controllability were identified. In order to determine the performance of various concepts, studies with a baseline ship of about 84 000 dwt were carried out. The mathematical models used were based on model tests and analysis of information in the literature. The concepts investigated included a conventional single propeller/rudder configuration as a baseline and modifications to this baseline, including twin propeller/rudders, increased astern power, thrusters, high-lift rudders and thrust vectoring devices. The maneuvering performance was determined from evaluation maneuvers in shallow water, including turns, accelerating turns, coasting turns and stops. Some of the high-lift rudder and thrust vectoring devices were identified as having significant benefits. Suggestions for future efforts are presented.

A Case for a U.S. Flag Trailership Fleet

This paper presents a summary of the findings and conclusions of three recent assignments conducted by Booz, Allen and Hamilton for the U. S. Maritime Administration (MarAd), the Tampa Port Authority and a U.S.-flag operator.3 Gibbs and Cox was subcontractor to Booz, Allen on the engagement with MarAd. The paper is organized into the following sections:the loss of traditional Latin American business to specialized foreign-flag trailership operators;the potential for a U.S.-flag short-sea service to Latin America;analysis of alternative vessel types; andfinancial feasibility.

Experiments in marine navigation with NAVSTAR-GPS satellites

Abstract One of six Type Z Navigation sets, which use the civil-available C/A code signal, was provided to the U.S. Coast Guard and the Maritime Administration for a joint test and evaluation program. The goal of this program is to determine the suitability of GPS C/A signals for marine use. The first static tests were conducted in May–September 1979 in Long Beach, California. Results from these tests are presented following a tutorial summary of the Z-set operating principles. When signal conditions are optimum, the tests reveal a four-satellite fix accuracy and variability which is considerably better than the readout precision of 1.0 arc-sec. Underlying effective ranging errors were estimated to fall in the 5–10 m. rms, range. Fix errors increased by a factor of 5 when 24-h old orbit and clock parameters were used, and they increased by the same amount when only three satellites with poor GDOP were available. Fixes obtained in a vehicle agreed with topographic map location at 14 of 15 sites around Los Angeles, with the one fix failure ascribed to building shadow. Further examples of underlying ranging errors measured with an X-set located near Baltimore, Maryland, are shown to agree with these data.

Experience of the U.S. maritime administration in man-machine aspects of ship control

Experience of the U.S. maritime administration in man-machine aspects of ship control

The integration of shipboard and shore-based systems for operations in heavy weather

The introduction of computers as an aid in ship operations has lead to a continuous debate among users and designers relative to the multi-function capabilities of ship-board computers and the extent to which certain algorithms should be handled on board. New developments and commercial implementation of ship to shore communications partly eliminates one of the major obstacles in optimizing the use of shore based on shipboard computers to provide an idealized operational system for the officer on board and the shore-based management who are concerned with the entire fleet. An ongoing project initiated by the U.S. Maritime Administration is aimed at evaluating the practical aspects of such systems as an aid in ship handling in heavy weather. It is designed to provide additional insight on the subject and lead to a comprehensive commercial system. The paper describes the basic components and functions of the shipboard and the shore-based systems and sets forth the goals and expectations of the final configurations. Some initial results are shown and the approach used to incorporate such a system as an integral part of ship routing is demonstrated. A short discussion of several other ongoing projects aimed at verifying certain components of the total system is also given.

CONCEPT STUDY OF MOBILIZATION TUG‐BARGE DESIGNS

ABSTRACTThis paper describes one facet of a continuing effort within the Maritime Administration to insure the adequacy of the United States Merchant Marine in a war or national emergency. As a result of comments on “Merchant Ships for Wartime Mobilization Prototype Design and Construction for Readiness”, given at ASNE Day 1976, a concept study was initiated within the Maritime Administration to assess the utility of integrated Tug‐Barges in a mobilization program. The results of this study are given in this paper.In light of the restricted number of shipways available for building the multi‐purpose mobilization ship, the need is defined for another ship type which would be suitable for construction at a larger number of facilities. General design objectives are then developed for this ancillary ship which satisfy mobilization requirements. A brief analysis of the capability of integrated Tug‐Barges to meet the design objectives is conducted, followed by four Barge concept designs and a description of Tug options, which demonstrate the feasibility of utilizing Tug‐Barges in a mobilization effort. The eventual goal, after the completion of a preliminary design phase, will be the development of a set of contract plans and specifications followed by the construction of a prototype vessel.

US Research into Shiphandling Simulators for Mariner Training and Licensing

Shiphandling training simulators have come into use since 1967. Several such simulators, with differing technical characteristics and training goals, are now in use around the world. They are commonly used to familiarize already competent masters with new vessels, restricted water areas, or some form of standard bridge procedures. Acceptance of these simulators by highly experienced master trainees has been predominantly favourable. Ship radar simulators have been in use for a somewhat longer time. They are typically used for training entry level officers as well as experienced masters.The aviation and nuclear reactor industries, with a greater experience of simulator technology and its training value, use simulators for both training and licensing. The military (e.g. Navy) and other government agencies (e.g. National Aeronautics and Space Administration) have extensively used simulators for training and qualification. It has been suggested (Schumacker, Madsen and Nicastro, 1972; IMCO Standards of Training and Watchkeeping Convention of 1978, Resolution 17) that simulators could be used for proficiency demonstration on the part of mariners. The US Port and Tanker Safety Act of 1978 requires standards for licence qualifications by use of simulators.The United States Coast Guard and Maritime Administration have funded research into the role, technology, and effectiveness of ship-handling simulators. Depending partly on conclusions from this research, the Coast Guard will consider partial credit toward licences for successful completion of approved simulator training. The Maritime Administration may assist maritime training academies to design and procure simulator-based training systems.

Risk of Collision-A Sequel

An international performance standard for Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA), frequently referred to as collision avoidance aids, has been approved. This paper briefly reviews the domestic and international actions that led to development of the ARPA standard. The main features of the international ARPA standard are examined and compared to the United States statutory requirements which require compliance with the Maritime Administration (MARAD) specification. The differences between the international standard and the MARAD specification are highlighted and the implications of these differences addressed. Domestic implementation of the ARPA standard requires Coast Guard rulemaking action. The background, applicability, and time frame for regulatory action is presented. The potential alternative rulemaking actions are touched on. The implementation of requirements for a major new system are not without potential problems. Some of these potential problems that have been raised in international fora, but have not been fully considered, include development of equipment reliability standards and determination of necessary training requirements. The author's thoughts on these issues are presented. The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private views of the writer and are not to be construed as official or reflecting the views of the Commandant or the Coast Guard at large.

Application of reciprocity methods to the measurement of dynamic characteristics of a cavitating propeller in a water tunnel

A reciprocity measurement, suggested by Dr. Neal A. Brown was used to determine volume velocity of a cavitating propeller operating in a simulated ship wake in the MIT variable pressure water tunnel. During calibration the tunnel wall was driven by a known force and the pressure at the propeller location was measured. The volume velocity was then inferred from the acceleration at the unloaded drive point caused by cavitating propeller operation. Initial measurements showed that the volume velocity so inferred decreased with increasing drive point distance from the propeller. Since unsteady thrust and torque are only slightly affected by the presence of cavitation, tests were carried out with a noncavitating propeller to determine the effect of dipole sources upon the initial results. A separate reciprocity measurement of alternating thrust, involving pressure gradient measurement at the propeller location, was carried out. The results of these tests, together with the effects of finite source size and mean shear flow will be discussed. [Work supported by the U. S. Maritime Administration.]

Efficient Steam Generators for Modern Marine Cycles

An urgent demand has developed throughout the marine industry for more efficient steam plants to reduce the impact of high fuel costs. The Maritime Administration has undertaken with ship designers a number of studies of ways to reduce fuel consumption. Ship operators are studying their present plants and looking for more efficient new cycles to reduce their operating costs. However, they are approaching the new cycles cautiously in a desire to avoid higher maintenance costs, traditionally associated with lower flue gas temperatures and higher steam temperatures, when burning low-grade oils. These varied interests are looking to the major propulsion plant equipment manufacturers to provide the technology for meeting the industry's new needs. Manufacturers of steam-generating equipment are cooperating to provide many advancements to maximize efficiency, reduce fuel consumption, improve reliability, and reduce maintenance costs. This paper discusses boilers and the related equipment required for the improved cycles.

Marine Bridge Simulation Research

The U.S. Coast Guard and the Maritime Administration have undertaken a major research program utilizing a marine bridge simulator in an effort to reduce the number of marine collisions, rammings and groundings attributed to human error.

The National Planning Conference on the Commercial Development of the Oceans

Four Federal agencies—the Maritime Administration, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Department of Interior, and the Energy Research and Development Administration—in cooperation with private industry sponsored the title Conference. This paper summarizes the results of the Conference, outlining the recommendations of the five working panels and emphasizing those aspects of special interest to SNAME members.

THE NATIONAL DEFENSE RESERVE FLEET—AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT OF NATIONAL DEFENSE

ABSTRACTThis paper discusses the problems associated with establishing a pool of selected National Defense Reserve Fleet ships required to provide immediate Merchant Marine support to the Department of Defense during limited conflicts or military assistance operations.Ships from the National Defense Reserve Fleet have been called upon to respond to national shipping crises arising from actions concerning Korea and Southeast Asia. Each time the National Defense Reserve Fleet was called upon to supplement the Merchant Marine tonnage required to support a particular crisis, the Reserve Fleet ships were able to meet the need.Recent moves by U.S. Flag Operators toward intermodal ships have highlighted the value of Break—Bulk Ships in the National Defense Reserve Fleet. To meet specific emergency military requirements of the Department of Defense, the Maritime Administration working with the Navy is developing a program of Rapid Response Reactivation for Victory Ships from the National Defense Reserve Fleets. These self—sustaining ships are capable of carrying a wide variety of essential military cargoes required by current Department of Defense contingency plans.

MERCHANT SHIPS FOR WARTIME MOBILIZATION PROTOTYPE DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR READINESS

ABSTRACTThis paper describes the need for modem austere mobilization ship designs carried through prototype construction and operational stages. Such ships would need to be produced quickly during a wartime mobilization effort. Some historical background is presented along with an outline of general ship design requirements. A Maritime Administration conceptual study of three general cargo ship designs is used to illustrate the type of ships, features, and design choices involved. Producibility is the principal requirement with every effort made to decrease lead times and increase production rates. Working plans, needed to make significant reductions in production lead time, and the construction and operation of a prototype are considered necessary for wartime readiness. Alteration of certain design features could make the designs attractive for normal commercial construction and operation although a government sponsored ship building program similar to that for the MARINER design may be most desirable.