Makueni District Research Articles

Towards MSE Technology Adoption Model for Business Growth in Kenya

Technology has been described as “the systematic application of scientific and other organized knowledge to practical task”. This study focused on youth-led MSES located in Makueni district of Kenya. A descriptive research design was used to carry out the study. Stratified random sampling technique was employed to select a sample of 119 out of the target population of 396. A three-part questionnaire consisting of both quantitative and qualitative questions was the main instrument for collecting data. Both quantitative and qualitative data was collected to reveal the strengths and show the main themes. Quantitative data were analyzed using the SPSS software. From the study, it was revealed that most youths had adopted technology in the form of training and purchase of equipment and that very few experienced and well-established entrepreneurs were able to sub-contract and /or franchise. It was also revealed that technology adopted had impacted positively on the youth-led MSEs in that it has improved quality of goods produced; increased productivity of the enterprise; improved marketability of business products and thus steady growth and enhanced business competitiveness in the market. The MSE technology adoption model developed from the study suggested that a deliberate action aimed at enhancing technology adoption amongst MSEs need to be taken possibly through injection of more capital, provision of emerging quality improvement techniques and creation of MSE linkages and networks among others.

Impact of African traditional worldviews on climate change adaptation.

Recent studies show cultural worldviews are a key determinant of environmental risk perceptions; thus, they could influence climate change adaptation strategies. African traditional worldviews encourage harmony between humans and the environment through a complex metaphysical belief system transmitted through folklore, taboos, and traditional knowledge. However, African traditional worldviews hold a belief in traditional gods that was shown to have a low connectedness to nature and a low willingness to change. In Makueni District, Kenya, 45% of agropastoralists surveyed believed drought was god's plan and could not be changed. In contrast, traditional knowledge, which is shaped by African traditional worldviews, is often used to frame adaptive strategies such as migration, changing modes of production, and planting different crop varieties. Furthermore, traditional knowledge has been used as a complement to science in areas where meteorological data was unavailable. However, the role of African traditional worldviews on climate change adaption remains understudied. Hence, there is a need to systematically establish the influence of African traditional worldviews on climate change risk perception, development of adaptive strategies, and policy formulation and implementation. In this commentary, we discuss the potential impacts of African traditional worldviews on climate change adaptation. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2018;14:189-193. © 2018 SETAC.

Epidemiology of snake bites in selected areas of Kenya.

IntroductionSnake bites are a silent public health problem in Kenya. Previous studies on snake bites in the country have mainly focused on identifying offending snake species, assessing the severity of envenomation and testing the efficacy of antivenom. Factors associated with snake bites in the country are yet to be fully understood. The aim of this work was to determine pharmaco-epidemiological factors associated with snake bites in areas of Kenya where incidence, severity and species responsible for snake bites have been reported.MethodsKakamega provincial hospital, Kabarnet, Kapenguria and, Makueni district hospitals were selected as study sites based on previous findings on incidence, severity and species responsible for snake bites in catchment areas of these hospitals. Persistent newspaper reports of snake bites in these areas and distribution of snakes in Kenya were also considered. Cases of snake bites reported between 2007-2009 were retrospectively reviewed and data on incidence, age, site of the bites, time of bite and antivenom use was collected.Results176 bites were captured, 91 of which occurred in 2009. Individual incidence was between 2.7/100,000/year and 6.7/100,000/year. Bites peaked in the 1-15 year age group while 132/176 bites were in the lower limb area and 49/176 victims received antivenom. Most bites occurred during the dry season, in the bush and in the evening. Overall mortality was 2.27%.ConclusionThere is a need to sensitize the Kenyan public and healthcare personnel on preventive measures, first aid and treatment of snake bites.

Morphological Characterization and Determination of Aflatoxin-Production Potentials of Aspergillus flavus Isolated from Maize and Soil in Kenya

This study aimed at morphologically identifying Aspergillus flavus in soil and maize and at determining their aflatoxin-producing potentials. Five hundred and fourteen isolates obtained from maize and soil in Kenya were cultivated on Czapeck Dox Agar, Malt Extract Agar, Sabouraud Dextrose Agar, Potato Dextrose Agar, and Rose-Bengal Chloramphenicol Agar. Isolates were identified using macro-morphological characteristics. Micromorphological characteristics were determined using slide cultures. Aflatoxin production was determined by direct visual determination of the UV fluorescence of colonies on Coconut Agar Medium, Yeast Extract Sucrose agar, and Yeast Extract Cyclodextrin Sodium Deoxycholate agar and by Thin Layer Chromatography. Forty-three presumptive A. flavus isolates were identified; aflatoxin was detected in 23% of the isolates by UV fluorescence screening and in 30% by Thin-Layer Chromatography (TLC). The aflatoxins produced were: aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), and aflatoxin G1 (AFG1); some isolates produced only AFB1, whereas others produced either AFB1 and AFB2 or AFB1 and AFG1. The highest incidence of A. flavus (63%) and aflatoxin production (28%) was recorded in samples from Makueni District. Isolates from Uasin Gishu (21%) and Nyeri (5%) were non-aflatoxigenic. Bungoma District recorded 11% positive isolates of which 2% were aflatoxin producers. The occurrence of aflatoxin-producing A. flavus emphasises the need for measures to eliminate their presence in food crops.

Socio-Cultural Factors Influencing Uptake of Skilled Childbirth Services among Women in Kaiti Division, Makueni District (Kenya)

<p>Each year, over 500,000 women die from the complications of pregnancy and child birth, almost all of them in the developing countries. This trend can be addressed by increasing the rates of skilled care during childbirth. This study therefore sought to establish the socio-cultural factors influencing uptake of skilled childbirth care which has remained low in Kaiti Division. The researchers applied a descriptive cross-sectional study design which involved women of childbearing age (15-49 years). The study was conducted in March 2010 and had a sample size of 246 women which was randomly selected from the estimated target population of 12,077. The researchers applied both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The tests of significance employed included Fisher’s exact test, chi-square, test and logistic regression. The study established that the proportion of women attended to by the skilled attendant within various age cohorts was higher (58.9%) amongst the youth/adolescent (15-24 years) (P-value = 0.091> 0.05, c<sup>2</sup> 10.915 df 6).). Skilled attendance declined among the grand-multiparas (para4 and above) from 7.7% in Para 4-5 to 2% in Para 6+ (P-value = .000<0.05, c<sup>2</sup> 34.888 df 3; Para 1(p =0.000, OR 28.391), Para 2-3 (p =0.000, OR 7.564), Para 4-5(p=0.030, OR 3.493) Further findings indicated that the principal decision maker (46.7%) on type of assistant in the last delivery was the woman (P-value = 0.000 <0.05, c<sup>2</sup> 56.076 df 5). However, the husband was the leading (39.5%) decision maker in use of a skilled assistant in the last delivery (p=0.000, OR 15.667). More than two thirds (70.7%) of the respondents who performed a ceremony prayed for safe delivery in their last delivery. The study concluded that women’s parity, decision making and religion were significant in use of skilled childbirth services.</p>

Socio-Cultural Factors Influencing Uptake of Skilled Childbirth Services among Women in Kaiti Division, Makueni District (Kenya)

Each year, over 500,000 women die from the complications of pregnancy and child birth, almost all of them in the developing countries. This trend can be addressed by increasing the rates of skilled care during childbirth. This study therefore sought to establish the socio-cultural factors influencing uptake of skilled childbirth care which has remained low in Kaiti Division. The researchers applied a descriptive cross-sectional study design which involved women of childbearing age (15-49 years). The study was conducted in March 2010 and had a sample size of 246 women which was randomly selected from the estimated target population of 12,077. The researchers applied both quantitative and qualitative approaches. The tests of significance employed included Fisher’s exact test, chi-square, test and logistic regression. The study established that the proportion of women attended to by the skilled attendant within various age cohorts was higher (58.9%) amongst the youth/adolescent (15-24 years) (P-value = 0.091> 0.05, c<sup>2</sup> 10.915 df 6).). Skilled attendance declined among the grand-multiparas (para4 and above) from 7.7% in Para 4-5 to 2% in Para 6+ (P-value = .000<0.05, c<sup>2</sup> 34.888 df 3; Para 1(p =0.000, OR 28.391), Para 2-3 (p =0.000, OR 7.564), Para 4-5(p=0.030, OR 3.493) Further findings indicated that the principal decision maker (46.7%) on type of assistant in the last delivery was the woman (P-value = 0.000 <0.05, c<sup>2</sup> 56.076 df 5). However, the husband was the leading (39.5%) decision maker in use of a skilled assistant in the last delivery (p=0.000, OR 15.667). More than two thirds (70.7%) of the respondents who performed a ceremony prayed for safe delivery in their last delivery. The study concluded that women’s parity, decision making and religion were significant in use of skilled childbirth services.

Job Satisfaction among the Nurses of Makueni District Hospital, Kenya

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the level of job satisfaction among the nurses of Makueni District Hospital. This was necessitated by the high nurse staff turnover from the facility and a myriad of complains from various departments. The study was a cross sectional descriptive survey involving about 50 nurses that was carried out between 15 and 19<sup>th</sup> July 2013. The study employed mixed method approach. Tests of significance were through use of Chi-square, Fishers exact test and logistic regression. The key results were that overall job satisfaction was low (36%). There were significant relationships between job satisfaction and cordial relationship with the nurse manager (c<sup>2</sup> 12.131 df 4 p=0.016<0.05. Logistic regression p=0.018<0.05). The plans to quit the hospital and work elsewhere indicates a relationship with job satisfaction (c<sup>2</sup> 12.749 df 4 p=0.013<0.05). The findings of this study suggest that there is no enabling working environment for the nurses and this could be a barrier to service delivery in the Hospital. These findings suggest that the Nurse Managers should build up effective relationship with the staff and other departments and should identify negative working conditions which affect staff and appropriately delegate authority to them.

Job Satisfaction among the Nurses of Makueni District Hospital, Kenya

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the level of job satisfaction among the nurses of Makueni District Hospital. This was necessitated by the high nurse staff turnover from the facility and a myriad of complains from various departments. The study was a cross sectional descriptive survey involving about 50 nurses that was carried out between 15 and 19<sup>th</sup> July 2013. The study employed mixed method approach. Tests of significance were through use of Chi-square, Fishers exact test and logistic regression. The key results were that overall job satisfaction was low (36%). There were significant relationships between job satisfaction and cordial relationship with the nurse manager (c<sup>2</sup> 12.131 df 4 p=0.016<0.05. Logistic regression p=0.018<0.05). The plans to quit the hospital and work elsewhere indicates a relationship with job satisfaction (c<sup>2</sup> 12.749 df 4 p=0.013<0.05). The findings of this study suggest that there is no enabling working environment for the nurses and this could be a barrier to service delivery in the Hospital. These findings suggest that the Nurse Managers should build up effective relationship with the staff and other departments and should identify negative working conditions which affect staff and appropriately delegate authority to them.

English

Cowpea is popular in Eastern Kenya where it is attractive to farmers because of its high economic value and the belief that it does not require many external inputs. Farmers are however discouraged to grow the crop in this region due to massive attack by a parasitic weed Alectra vogelii (Benth). Yield losses due to A. vogelii have being estimated to range from 50 to 100% in Mbeere, Kitui and Makueni districts. No single method however is available to farmers in these regions in control of the parasitic weed. Combining several control methods, as in the management of Striga spp in Western Kenya should be a sustainable option. Field studies were conducted in 2010 and 2011 at Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), Kiboko farm to determine the response of 143 cowpea genotypes to Alectra infestation. The aim for the study was to identify resistant genotypes that could be used in breeding programme. Significant differences were observed amongst cowpea genotypes in days to first Alectra emergence, number of Alectra shoots emerged at 6, 8, 10 and 12 week after planting and grain yield. Cowpea genotypes Kir/Nya-005 and Mbe/Mach-022 showed complete resistance to Alectra while Ken-Kunde, M66 and K80 (all commercial varieties) supported the highest number of Alectra shoots. Grain yield loss in the three susceptible varieties was 80, 79 and 50% respectively. On the other hand, Sia/Cia-004, Mbe/Mach-014 and Kib-006 had high grain yields despite the high number of Alectra shoots present. There was a strong correlation (r = -0.57) between grain yield and number of Alectra shoots emerged at 12 weeks after planting. A significant negative (r = -0.37) correlation was also obtained between pod number per plant and number of emerged Alectra shoots at 12 weeks after planting. This negative correlation proves the high accumulation dry matter in the cowpea roots at the expense of the pods thus decreasing grain yield. This information showed that there is sufficient genetic variability in the cowpea genotypes studied, which can be exploited in breeding improved cowpea varieties for resistance to A. vogelii in Kenya. A great progress towards developing improved cowpea variety that meets farmer’s preferences with durable resistance to A. vogelii can be achieved if the genes from the resistant and tolerant local cowpea cultivars identified in this study could be introgressed into the adapted susceptible improved varieties. This will increase the potential impact of adoption of resistant cowpea varieties in the zones. Key words: Cowpea, Alectra vogelii, Resistance/tolerance and grain yield.

Long term study on the effect of mollusciciding with niclosamide in stream habitats on the transmission of schistosomiasis mansoni after community-based chemotherapy in Makueni District, Kenya.

BackgroundSchistosoma mansoni infection is a persistent public health problem in many Kenyan communities. Although praziquantel is available, re-infection after chemotherapy treatment is inevitable, especially among children. Chemotherapy followed by intermittent mollusciciding of habitats of Biomphalaria pfeifferi, the intermediate host snail, may have longer term benefits, especially if timed to coincide with natural fluctuations in snail populations.MethodsIn this cohort study, the Kambu River (Intervention area) was molluscicided intermittently for 4 years, after mass chemotherapy with praziquantel in the adjacent community of Darajani in January 1997. The nearby Thange River was selected as a control (Non-intervention area), and its adjacent community of Ulilinzi was treated with praziquantel in December 1996. Snail numbers were recorded monthly at 9–10 sites along each river, while rainfall data were collected monthly, and annual parasitological surveys were undertaken in each village. The mollusciciding protocol was adapted to local conditions, and simplified to improve prospects for widespread application.ResultsAfter the initial reduction in prevalence attributable to chemotherapy, there was a gradual increase in the prevalence and intensity of infection in the non-intervention area, and significantly lower levels of re-infection amongst inhabitants of the intervention area. Incidence ratio between areas adjusted for age and gender at the first follow-up survey, 5 weeks after treatment in the non-intervention area and 4 months after treatment in the intervention area was not significant (few people turned positive), while during the following 4 annual surveys these ratios were 0.58 (0.39-0.85), 0.33 (0.18-0.60), 0.14 (0.09-0.21) and 0.45 (0.26-0.75), respectively. Snail numbers were consistently low in the intervention area as a result of the mollusciciding. Following termination of the mollusciciding at the end of 2000, snail populations and infections in snails increased again in the intervention area.ConclusionThe results of this study demonstrate that in the Kenyan setting a combination of chemotherapy followed by intermittent mollusciciding can have longer term benefits than chemotherapy alone.

Baseline survey on factors affecting sorghum production and use in eastern Kenya

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) is an under-utilized crop and one of the most important cereal crops in semi-arid tropics. In Kenya, sorghum is grown in the often drought-prone marginal agricultural areas of Eastern, Nyanza and Coast Provinces. Due to its C4 photosynthetic nature, extensive root system, waxy leaves and ability to stop growth in periods of drought the crop is well adapted to low lands that have higher temperatures, prone to drought and flooding. Sorghum, which is closely related to maize in utilization, therefore, could be an alternative staple food crop in arid areas prone to drought. As an indigenous Kenyan crop, sorghum could provide food security and become a suitable alternative in eastern Kenya. Despite its suitability in the semiarid areas, the area under sorghum production is still low and farmers attain low yields in eastern Kenya. Most farmers still opt to grow maize which is frequented by cropfailures. The purpose of this study was to gather information on socio-economic factors affecting sorghum production and the sorghum farming system used by the farmers in the region, landraces grown by farmers, source of seed, traits preference, maturity period, cultural practices, pre and post harvest handling, utilization and constraints in sorghum production in lower eastern Kenya region. The study was conducted in Mbeere, Kitui, Makueni and Mutomo districts of eastern Kenya.Parameters studied were expressed as percentages and bar graphs constructed. Analysis of Variance was performed, and Least Significant Differences were used for separation of means at 0.05 level of confidence. Sorghum is grown widely as source of food and seed for planting is obtained from informal systems. Farmers hardly use inputs due to low income. Eastern region is a high agricultural area and productivitycould be improved by use of locally available germplasm. The study found out that farmers in eastern Kenya maintain a diversity of sorghum landraces unique in their adaptation, food quality, grain yield, quality of harvested products and biotic stress resistance. Sorghum grain has high levels of iron and zinc, hence may be used to reduce micronutrient malnutrition. However, the production is low due to constraints such as lack of income to purchase fertilizer and chemicals, inadequate quality seed, susceptibility to pests and diseases resulting to low yields. Key words : food security, seed quality, sorghum

Trace Element Concentrations in Some Traditional Diets Consumed in Selected Parts of Eastern Province of Kenya

Dietary quality is vital in maintaining sound nutritional status. The ecological conditions thus influence the type of diets and their nutritional quality. The purpose of this study was to determine the trace element/mineral content of some of the commonly consumed diets in Machakos, Kitui, Makueni and Mwingi districts. Decorticated maize, beans and finger millet flour samples were purchased from the local markets. For each category, a total of ten samples were collected from each district. The samples were put in plastic bags, sealed and transported to the laboratory in the Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology, University of Nairobi for preparation and analysis. The cooking of the samples was carried out according to local traditional methods. In the decorticated samples, mean copper concentrations were observed to be below 20 μg·g-1; mean zinc concentrations ranged from 34 to 63 μg·g-1 and mean manganese concentrations were in a similar range of 34 to 78 μg·g-1. The mean iron concentrations were significantly high with a range of 161 μg·g-1 to 287 μg·g-1. A similar trend was observed in the beans where the mean copper concentrations varied from 11 to 33 μg·g-1, mean zinc concentrations ranged from a low value of 24 μg·g-1 to a high value of 35 μg·g-1, mean manganese concentrations varied from 33 μg·g-1 to 98 μg·g-1 and the mean iron concentrations ranged from 227 μg·g-1 to 647 μg·g-1. The cooked Muthokoi samples from Machakos district had relatively high mean trace element concentrations: manganese—109 μg·g-1; iron—280 μg·g-1; copper—19 μg·g-1; and zinc—41 μg·g-1. The only exception was mean iron concentrations which were extremely high in samples from Mwingi District where the concentrations varied from 73 μg·g-1 to 1597 μg·g-1. In finger millet flour, the mean manganese concentrations varied from 95 to 290 μg·g-1, whereas the mean iron concentrations ranged from 127 μg·g-1 to 259 μg·g-1. In contrast, the mean copper and zinc concentrations were low in comparison to the manganese and iron concentrations. As a whole, the mean copper concentrations in the diets are significantly low compared to the other three trace elements. However, the total content is not necessarily a reflection of the amount assimilated in the body. Finger millet was found to be an excellent source of manganese and iron whereas beans were observed to be good sources of iron. All the food crops were observed to poor sources of copper.

Research Article: Parasitology Tsetse and Livestock Disease Situation in a Ranch and Surrounding Farms of Makueni District, Kenya

Surveys on vectors, livestock diseases and socio-economic issues were undertaken in June and August 2005 in Kiboko area, Makueni District of Kenya. It was deemed that the information generated would help to understand the farmersf awareness of the extent of tsetse and trypanosomosis and other diseases within and around Kiboko ranch. Over 500 head of cattle belonging to KARI and surrounding small scale farms were screened for parasites . tick-borne, trypanosomes, helminths and ticks. The farmers who presented their animals were interviewed to generate the socio-economic data. Biconical traps deployed were baited with acetone and 8.4.1.phenol sachets. A total of 21 tsetse flies (6 in June and 15 in August) were caught. Veterinary records from the area indicated the commonest diseases to be anaplasmosis, trypanosomosis and non-specific pneumonia in cattle. The overall trypanosome point prevalence in phase I and II were 3.9% and 0 respectively. On a four-point scale stratification the abundance of tick infestation in Kiboko was clean to low (Clean = 0; low . 20) with the overall tick infestation prevalence of 28.2%. Results on helminth-faecal egg count ranged from 0 . 4000 epgs with a mean 74.64. Skin diseases, trypanosomosis and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) were mentioned by the respondents as the most important livestock diseases in proportions of 61%, 50% and 36%, respectively. From this investigation, despite livestock playing a key role in the economy of farmers around Kiboko ranch, their knowledge of livestock diseases and their management was found to be low. In conclusion, trypanosomosis and TBDs as well as their vectors are still constraints to livestock production.

CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE: FARMER PERCEPTIONS AND UNDERSTANDING OF INTRA-SEASONAL VARIABILITY IN RAINFALL AND ASSOCIATED RISK IN SEMI-ARID KENYA

SUMMARYThis study examines farmers’ perceptions of short- and long-term variability in climate, their ability to discern trends in climate and how the perceived trends converge with actual weather observations in five districts of Eastern Province in Kenya where the climate is semi-arid with high intra- and inter-annual variability in rainfall. Field surveys to elicit farmers’ perceptions about climate variability and change were conducted in Machakos, Makueni, Kitui, Mwingi and Mutomo districts. Long-term rainfall records from five meteorological stations within a 10 km radius from the survey locations were obtained from the Kenya Meteorological Department and were analysed to compare with farmers’ observations. Farmers’ responses indicate that they are well aware of the general climate in their location, its variability, the probabilistic nature of the variability and the impacts of this variability on crop production. However, their ability to synthesize the knowledge they have gained from their observations and discern long-term trends in the probabilistic distribution of seasonal conditions is more subjective, mainly due to the compounding interactions between climate and other factors such as soil fertility, soil water and land use change that determine the climate's overall influence on crop productivity. There is a general tendency among the farmers to give greater weight to negative impacts leading to higher risk perception. In relation to long-term changes in the climate, farmer observations in our study that rainfall patterns are changing corroborated well with reported perceptions from other places across the African continent but were not supported by the observed trends in rainfall data from the five study locations. The main implication of our findings is the need to be aware of and account for the risk during the development and promotion of technologies involving significant investments by smallholder farmers and exercise caution in interpreting farmers’ perceptions about long-term climate variability and change.

Gender inequality in food intake and nutritional status of children under 5 years old in rural Eastern Kenya

Although gender inequality in nutritional status has been consistently reported in several parts of South Asia, in sub-Sahara Africa there is a paucity of data and conflicting conclusions. We conducted a study to assess if gender inequality in food intake and nutritional status is present in rural Eastern Kenya. This was a descriptive cross sectional study conducted in the Mwingi and Makueni districts of Ukambani region in Eastern Kenya, two rural districts where grains are the main contributor of energy intake. There were 629 children aged <60 months, randomly selected for participation in the study. Boys consistently had higher energy intakes than girls (P = 0.005). More girls were stunted, underweight and wasted 51.7%, (49.9-53.5), 32.1%, (30.4-33.7), 4.6%, (3.9-5.4) than boys 35.9% (34.2-37.7), 14.6% (13.4-15.9) and 1.2% (0.8-1.6), respectively, P < 0.001. Of the total, 24.6% (23.1-26.2) of the girls were severely stunted compared with boys 16.3% (15.0-17.7). Boys had higher Z-score indices (height-for-age (HAZ) = -1.33 ± 1.86, weight-for-age (WAZ) = -0.60 ± 1.53 and weight-for-height (WHZ) = 0.25 ± 1.23) than girls (HAZ = -2.02 ± 1.94, WAZ = -1.37 ± 1.27 and WHZ = -0.10 ± 1.49), all P < 0.001. The prevalence of malnutrition among children in rural Eastern Kenya is sizable. However, girls were more stunted, underweight and wasted than boys at all age categories due to their consistent lower food intake. Further research is needed to expose the social and cultural determinants underlying gender discrimination in intra-household allocation of food.

Drought Coping and Adaptation Strategies: Understanding Adaptations to Climate Change in Agro-pastoral Livestock Production in Makueni District, Kenya

Using drought as a lens, this article analyses how agro-pastoralists in Makueni district, Kenya adapt their livestock production to climate variability and change. Data were collected from a longitudinal survey of 127 agro-pastoral households. Approximately one-third of the households have inadequate feeds, and livestock diseases are major challenges during non-drought and drought periods. Agro-pastoralists’ responses to drought are reactive and mainly involve intensifying exploitation of resources and the commons. Proactive responses such as improving production resources are few. Poverty, limited responses to market dynamics and inadequate skills constrain adaptations. Many agro-pastoralists’ attachment to livestock deters livestock divestment, favouring disadvantageous sales that result in declining incomes. To improve adaptive capacity, interventions should expose agro-pastoralists to other forms of savings, incorporate agro-pastoralists as agents of change by building their capacity to provide extension services, and maintain infrastructure. Securing livestock mobility, pasture production and access is crucial under the variable social-ecological conditions. En se servant de la secheresse comme point de depart, cet article analyse comment les agro-pastoralistes du district de Makueni au Kenya adaptent leurs moyens de subsistance a la variabilite et au changement climatiques. Il s′appuie sur des donnees issues d′une enquete longitudinale aupres de 127 menages agro-pastoraux. Environ un tiers des menages ont des animaux mal nourris, et l′etat de sante du betail est un probleme majeur aussi bien en temps de secheresse qu′en absence de secheresse. Les actions adoptees par les eleveurs en reponse a la secheresse sont reactives et consistent essentiellement en une intensification de l′exploitation des ressources et des biens communaux, et peu en des mesures pro-actives telles que l′amelioration des ressources de production. La pauvrete de ces populations, leurs reponses imparfaites aux dynamiques de marche et leur manque de competences limitent leur capacite d′adaptation. Le fort attachement de nombreux eleveurs au betail les empeche de se desengager de l′elevage; ceci mene a des ventes de betail defavorables aux eleveurs et entraine un declin de leurs revenus. Afin d′ameliorer leur capacite d′adaptation, des interventions devraient etre entreprises pour exposer les agro-pastoralistes a d′autres formes d′epargne. En outre, la capacite des eleveurs a fournir des services de vulgarisation agricole et a maintenir les infrastructures doit etre developpee. Dans un contexte de variabilite socio-ecologique, il est crucial d′assurer la mobilite du betail, ainsi que la production de pâturages et leur accessibilite.

Dietary patterns of infant and preschool children in Mwingi and Makueni districts of Ukambani region, eastern Kenya.

A cross -sectional study was conducted in the Ukambani region of eastern Kenya to describe dietary patterns of infants and preschool children. The purpose of the study was to provide region specific data on dietary patterns of children living in Mwingi (MW) a region that mainly grows pearl millet and Makueni (MA), a region that grows maize. A modified rapid, knowledge, practice and coverage (KPC) questionnaire and a 24-hr dietary recall were used to collect the data. A total of 403 households (201 – MW, 202 – MA) were surveyed from four randomly selected divisions of MW and MA districts. This yielded 629 surrogate 24-hr dietary recalls with 314 children from MW district and 315 children from MA district (49% boys and 51% girls). Intake of nutrients and food groups were compared between the two districts using t- test. On average, grains contributed 62-68 percent of total energy intake in both districts. Mean daily energy intake (mean ±SD) for all the children was 1056 ± 553 Kcal. Daily energy intake (1130 ± 595 Kcal) in MW children was 15% higher compared to MA children (983 ± 499 Kcal, p = 0.002). Boys had a 12% higher daily energy intake than girls (p = 0.005). The contribution to total energy from grains was 27% higher in MW children (p = 0.0001) and breast milk contribution to total energy intake was 50% less in MW children (p < 0.001). Consumption of fruits and vegetables was significantly lower in MW children (p

The economic costs of malaria in four Kenyan districts: do household costs differ by disease endemicity?

BackgroundMalaria inflicts significant costs on households and on the economy of malaria endemic countries. There is also evidence that the economic burden is higher among the poorest in a population, and that cost burdens differ significantly between wet and dry seasons. What is not clear is whether, and how, the economic burden of malaria differs by disease endemicity. The need to account for geographical and epidemiological differences in the estimation of the social and economic burden of malaria is well recognized, but there is limited data, if any, to support this argument. This study sought to contribute towards filling this gap by comparing malaria cost burdens in four Kenyan districts of different endemicity.MethodsA cross-sectional household survey was conducted during the peak malaria transmission season in the poorest areas in four Kenyan districts with differing malaria transmission patterns (n = 179 households in Bondo; 205 Gucha; 184 Kwale; 141 Makueni).FindingsThere were significant differences in duration of fever, perception of fever severity and cost burdens. Fever episodes among adults and children over five years in Gucha and Makueni districts (highland endemic and low acute transmission districts respectively) lasted significantly longer than episodes reported in Bondo and Kwale districts (high perennial transmission and seasonal, intense transmission, respectively). Perceptions of illness severity also differed between districts: fevers reported among older children and adults in Gucha and Makueni districts were reported as severe compared to those reported in the other districts. Indirect and total costs differed significantly between districts but differences in direct costs were not significant. Total household costs were highest in Makueni (US$ 19.6 per month) and lowest in Bondo (US$ 9.2 per month).ConclusionsCost burdens are the product of complex relationships between social, economic and epidemiological factors. The cost data presented in this study reflect transmission patterns in the four districts, suggesting that a relationship between costs burdens and the nature of transmission might exist, and that the same warrants more attention from researchers and policy makers.

Intestical polyparasitism in a rural Kenyan community

Polyparasitism seems to be a common feature in human populations in sub-Saharan Africa. However, very little is known about its epidemiological significance, its long term impact on human health or the types of interactions that occur between the different parasite species involved. To determine the prevalence and co-occurrence of intestinal parasites in a rural community in the Kibwezi, Makueni district, Kenya. A cross sectional study. Kiteng'ei village, Kibwezi, Makueni district, between May and September 2006. One thousand and forty five who comprised of 263 adult males, 271 adult females > 15 years of age and 232 boys, and 279 girls <15 years of age. All infected members of the community were offered Praziquantel (at dosages of 40 mg/kg body weight) for Schistosomiasis and Albendazole (600 mg) for soil transmitted helminths. A total of ten intestinal parasite species (five protozoan and five helminth parasite species) were present in this community and polyparasitsm was common in individuals 5-24 years of age with no gendar related differences. Most of the infections were mild. The protozoan parasites of public health significance present were Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia with prevalence of 12.6% and 4.2%, respectively. The helminth parasites of public health significance in the locality were Schistosoma mansoni with a prevalence of 28%, and hookworms prevalence of 10%. About 53% of the study population harboured intestinal parasite infections, with 31% of the infected population carrying single parasite species infections, and 22% harbouring two or more intestinal parasite species per individual. Significant positive associations (p values <0.05) were observed between S. mansoni and hookworms, hookworms and Hymenolepis. nana and Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba coli. Intestinal polyparasitism was common in the Kiteng'ei community, particularly in individuals aged of 5-24 years old. An integrated control programme of approach would be recommended for the control of S. mansoni, hookworms and Entamoeba histolytica for this community.

Use of insecticide treated nets among caregivers of children under five years in Makueni District, Kenya

Insecticide treated nets (ITNs) have been identified as a key strategy in addressing malaria problem among young children and pregnant women. Their utilisation among under fives, however, have been found to be low in some areas. To identify factors affecting net utilisation (sleeping under insecticide treated net) among caregivers of under fives in Makueni District in Kenya. A cross-sectional, descriptive study. Eight sub-locations in Wote division Makueni district. Four hundred caregivers of children aged five years and below. The results indicated that 88.5% of caregivers were aware of ITNs. The proportion of households with children below five years that owned mosquito net were found to be 46.2%, and only 32.0% had at least a treated net. Slightly more than half of treated nets were used by under fives (52.2%) compared to 47.8% used by children over five years including adults. The main reason cited by majority of caregivers as a hindrance to net utilisation was lack of treated nets in households (72.3%). Utilisation of ITNs by under five children was found to be positively associated with knowledge of ITNs (p = 0.024), marital status (p = 0.018) and occupation (p = 0.043). Utilisation of ITNs by under fives was low despite high level of awareness among caregivers. Factors such as awareness of ITNs, marital status and occupation significantly affected ITNs utilisation. Although the government with support from other stakeholders has recently embarked on large scale distribution of nets in high risky districts, more interventions from various stakeholders are needed to increase availability and accessibility of subsidised permanently treated nets, including interventions to address non-compliance to proper utilisation of nets. There is also need for intensive education emphasising on their proper and consistent use. Scaling up proper use of ITNs along with other initiatives can contribute significantly in reducing malaria.