Makiling Forest Reserve Research Articles

Draft genome sequence of Rhodotorula sp. BUB8, an oleaginous yeast isolated from Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Laguna, Philippines.

This paper reports the draft genome sequence of Rhodotorula sp. BUB8, an oleaginous yeast isolated from the forest canopy of Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve in the Philippines. The draft genome is 20,394,133 bp with 64.3% guanine-cytosine (GC) content, 6,604 coding genes, 109 tRNA coding, and 6 snRNA-coding genes.

Perceptions of commercial plants and tree nurseries in the use of native forest tree species for urban landscaping activities in municipalities of Los Baños and Bay, Philippines

Abstract Urban greening using native forest tree species (NFTs) has been increasingly recognized to achieve more livable, healthier, and resilient cities. However, despite having diverse genetic reserves, full utilization of NFTs in the country has not been fully realized. This restricts the mass production of seedlings for urban greening activities. As such, this study was carried out to determine the perceptions of commercial plants and tree nurseries in the use of NFTs for urban greening in municipalities of Los Baños and Bay, Philippines using the snowball sampling technique of Key Informant Interviews (KII). A total of 32 respondents were interviewed. Out of 85 species of trees identified, 51.16% (Los Baños) and 35.29% (Bay) were native. Most buyers planted their seedlings in private gardens (37.62%), subdivisions (12.38%), and private resorts (11.90%). About 18% of respondents sourced out their propagules from local sellers, followed by purchasing ready-to-plant seedlings from nearby towns (e.g. Talisay, Batangas) (14.11%) and Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve (10.58%). Unfamiliarity (21.69%) with the potential of native species seemingly impedes their popularity as urban trees. Over 23% of respondents believed that native trees help enhance the urban biodiversity and more than 43% have mentioned that buyers used leaves as the basis for species selection. Meanwhile, seedlings of seed origin are the most common (about 35%) mode of seedling production. Finally, the study revealed that Pterocarpus indicus is the topmost common native forest tree species being used for urban greening in the subject municipalities and therefore warranted to be used for further studies.

GIS-BASED SPATIAL ASSESSMENT OF RESORTS IN CALAMBA CITY, LAGUNA, PHILIPPINES

Abstract. Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) supports the water requirements of many towns in its periphery. One of the towns that benefit from the forest reserve is Calamba City, known for its resort-based tourism. The number of resorts in Calamba has significantly increased from 193 in 1998 to 466 in 2014 which has an implication on water consumption on which one of the initial steps in the monitoring aspect is the determination of its spatial distribution. Therefore, this study aims to determine and analyze the spatial distribution of resorts in Calamba City using Geographic Information System (GIS) to generate a distribution map of all the operating resorts showing the hotspots and clustering of resorts. The study recorded 852 resorts in Calamba City. The dense resort areas and the most significant hot spot area are located at Miramonte Village (Purok 6) and Purok 5 of Barangay Pansol. The result indicates a concentration of resorts in certain regions which raised concerns and should further be studied in terms of sustainable water use and environmental impact. The baseline data generated by this study will supplement the existing data of Calamba City on its resorts and help the local government in formulating effective land use and water extraction policies for the resort-based industry for a more sustainable management and conservation.

Litter Decomposition of a Deciduous Tectona philippinensis and an Evergreen Parashorea malaanonan Across Contrasting Sites

Litter traits and site conditions alter nutrient inputs from deciduous and evergreen forests by influencing litter decomposition processes. Here, we investigated the leaf and stem mass loss rate (MLR) of a deciduous (Tectona philippinensis) and an evergreen (Parashorea malaanonan) tree species and the factors influencing it through an intersite experiment and litterbag method in secondary forests in Lobo, Batangas and Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Variations in initial litter quality (leaf area, specific leaf area (SLA), leaf thickness, vein density), and site factors (light intensity and temperature) were assessed. P. malaanonan has a lower SLA and vein density than T. philippinensis. The leaf and stem MLR were significantly higher in the mixed litter (44.09–57.83%) than that of a single-species litter of either T. philippinensis (28.16–41.83%) or P. malaanonan (33.60–47.66%). The leaf MLR of T. philippinensis was greater when placed in Lobo (where the litter originated) than at a different site (i.e., MMFR). Moreover, leaf litter decomposition was faster in T. philippinensis than in P. malaanonan, particularly during the rainy season. Overall, the study showed that litter decomposition in deciduous and evergreen differed across sites due to variations in litter quality and environmental variables. Keywords: decomposability traits, home-field advantage (HFA), intersite experiment, litter quality, mass loss rate

Cat’s Paw: Tracking the Home Range of Domestic Cats in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve

Domestic cats are known to impact wildlife populations negatively; thus, it is imperative to determine how they contribute to changes in ecosystems and to create preventive measures to counteract these impacts on wildlife. This study tracked five males and one female domestic cat inside the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Laguna, the Philippines, with GPS collars from November 2019–March 2020. Results showed that their average 95% minimum convex polygon home range is 51.62 ha, whereas their average 95% kernel density estimate home range is 81.27 ha. Male home ranges were larger than the female, but there was no difference between day and night home ranges. The various prey items taken home consisted of lizards, rats, and bats, which were mostly native or endemic to the area. The predation return rate was 1.1/mo for all cats. Our results showed that the cats were free-ranging through the forest reserve, which may potentially impact the protection measures practiced in the reserve.

Host plants and nymph morphology of an endemic treehopper, Pyrgonota bifoliata, in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Luzon, Philippines

ABSTRACT Pyrgonota bifoliata (Insecta: Hemiptera: Membracidae) is a distinct endemic Philippine treehopper species complex distinguished by its extremely elevated and bifurcated pronotal structures. An earlier study suggested that P. bifoliata is a host specialist that feeds on Bridelia (Phyllanthaceae) in northern Luzon and Rubus (Rosaceae) in southern Mindanao. However, the host plant range across the geographical distribution of the P. bifoliata species complex is still poorly understood. In this study, field observations and DNA barcoding were performed to determine the host plant range of P. bifoliata in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve of Laguna Province on the island of Luzon. The morphology of the last-instar nymph of P. bifoliata was described to facilitate the identification of the species and its host plants. Behavioural interactions between P. bifoliata and its associated ants were also recorded. The results revealed that Piper umbellatum (Piperaceae) and Saurauia latibractea (Actinidiaceae) were the major host plants used by both nymphs and adults of P. bifoliata. The findings indicate that P. bifoliata in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve of central Luzon is a polyphagous host generalist that primarily utilises two distantly related plant species. The adults of P. bifoliata also occur on Alangium longiflorum (Cornaceae) and Ficus ulmifolia (Moraceae). The nymphs of P. bifoliata are gregarious in small groups and visited by three ant species (Crematogaster sp., Pheidole sp. and Technomyrmex sp.); however, the adults of P. bifoliata are solitary and are never observed with ants. Unlike other treehoppers that are subsocial, the females of P. bifoliata exhibited no maternal care behaviours, such as egg or nymph guarding.

Biodiesel production of oleaginous yeast isolated from the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve

Biodiesel production of oleaginous yeast isolated from the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve

Development of Synthetic Unit Hydrographs Using Spatial Proximity Regionalization for the Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

There is a dearth of streamflow data in the Philippines to generate hydrographs needed for flood forecasting and water resources assessment. A method of generating and calibrating synthetic hydrographs using model simulations and spatial proximity regionalization is presented. Synthetic unit hydrographs of four storm events in the gauged watershed of Makiling Forest Reserve were generated using Soil Conservation Service Unit Hydrograph, Clark Unit Hydrograph, and Snyder’s Unit Hydrograph methods. The generated synthetic hydrographs for each runoff modeling technique were calibrated with the actual hydrographs of the watershed. Snyder’s Unit Hydrograph model results were the most acceptable based on the Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency, Index of Volumetric Fit, and Relative Error of Peak Flow. The weighted values of the calibrated watershed parameters computed using spatial proximity regionalization technique and the hyetographs derived from the Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency Curve of the University of the Philippines Los Baños-National Agrometeorological Station were used to generate the synthetic unit hydrographs for three neighboring ungauged watersheds at 2-, 5-, 10-, 15-, 20-, 25-, 50, 100-year return periods. Total runoff volume, the magnitude of peak flows, and time to peak derived from the generated hydrographs can be used in watershed planning, water resources management, flood forecasting and the design of various water control structures.

Florivory records of Jamides spp. (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) on Strongylodon macrobotrys A. Gray and S. juangonzalezii Hadsall et al. (Fabaceae)

The endemic Jade Vine, Strongylodon macrobotrys A. Gray (Fabaceae) is reported for the first time as a larval host plant for the butterfly, Jamides suidas C. & R. Felder [1865] (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) in the Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve. This discovery not only contributes to the missing host plant data of this butterfly but is also the first record of larval feeding on the inflorescence of S. macrobotrys. Meanwhile, adults and larvae of Jamides alecto (C. Felder) were recorded as nectarivore and florivore, respectively, on S. juangonzalezii Hadsall et al.

Leaf Traits of Parashorea malaanonan Along Elevational Gradient in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Studying leaf trait variation and relationships along elevational gradients will enhance our understanding of how plants respond to changing environmental conditions. Thus, we analyzed the leaf traits variation in ecologically and economically important Parashorea malaanonan and the potential influence of environmental covariables (rainfall, relative humidity, and air temperature) on leaf traits along an elevational gradient in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Three sampling sites were selected based on elevation, i.e., low (400–500 masl), mid (500–600 masl), and high (> 600 masl). The leaf samples were collected from seedlings, saplings, and adult trees of P. malaanonan. There was no significant variation in most of the measured leaf traits, leaf area (LA), specific leaf area (SLA), leaf thickness (LT), leaf length-to-width ratio (L:W) across sampling sites, except vein density (VD). The SLA and LT at high elevations are significantly and negatively correlated (r2 = 0.7396). The environmental covariables had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on the leaf traits of P. malaanonan. The observed variation in some leaf traits may have been influenced by the elevation gradient and its associated environmental conditions. Thus, P. malaanonan may have developed adaptive mechanisms to cope with the changing environment. Keywords: conservation, elevational gradients, environmental variables, leaf traits, Parashorea malaanonan

An Agent-Based Model of a Sustainable Forest Operation in a Theoretical Lowland Dipterocarp Forest Modeled after Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

This study investigates the integration of assisted natural regeneration (ANR) and selective logging (SL) to guarantee a sustainable forest operation in the Philippines using agent-based modeling. To assess the sustainability of the operation in light of the revenue from timber harvesting and the health of the forest in terms of the total number of trees, various simulations were run on a theoretical forest modeled after the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve in the Philippines. The findings of the simulation have shown that, even after many years of continuous use, the performance of SL on a healthy forest similar to the theoretical forest is substantially identical with and without ANR. The “with ANR” setup, however, was able to demonstrate a considerably better and more stable harvest value over the final 100 years than the “without ANR” setup. In terms of ensuring sustainable forest cover, simulation findings showed that even after 500 years of continuous SL activity, the forest cover could be maintained to up to 80% with ANR. The model has shown that with the right combination of reforestation efforts and timber harvesting methods, a sustainable forest operation can contribute to the country’s economic needs for timber production while ensuring that the forest is actively managed.

Isolation, Characterization, and Lipase Production of Lipolytic Yeasts Isolated from Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Isolation, Characterization, and Lipase Production of Lipolytic Yeasts Isolated from Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

DEVELOPMENTAL MORPHO-ANATOMY AND GERMINATION OF THE SEEDS OF Pterocarpus indicus f. echinatus Willd. VARIANTS

Previous studies on the embryo structure of legumes species had resulted in the division of the Fabaceae family into two great subfamilies based on embryo axis curvature. Research on seed morphology and anatomy adds to the knowledge of taxonomy, evolution and ecology. This study determined the seed developmental anatomy, pod and seed morphology as well as germination characteristics of the observed variants (T1 - small prickles; T2 - medium prickles; T3 - long prickles) of Pterocarpus indicus Willd. f. echinatus locally known as prickly narra in the Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR). Based on the anatomy of the root (radicle) and shoot apex, the formation of the leaf primordium in T2 seeds after radicle protrusion was more progressive. It was observed that the germination rate and the percentage were the highest in T2, where the apical dome was welldeveloped. The germination, pod and seed morphological characters as well as seed anatomical characters were proven to be systematically informative by showing significant differences among the variants.

Long-term changes in floristic diversity, composition and stand structure in Acacia auriculiformis plantation in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Abstract. Hernandez JO, Ata JP, Combalicer MS. 2022. Long-term changes in floristic diversity, composition and stand structure in Acacia auriculiformis plantation in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines. Biodiversitas 23: 3631-3638. There have been continuous debates about whether exotic tree plantation facilitates vegetation succession. In the Philippines, the potential for the re-establishment of native plant communities and improvement of the plant community structure under exotic tree plantations has not yet been evaluated adequately. Thus, the study investigated the dynamics in floristic diversity, composition and stand structure of a reforested area using Acacia auriculiformis Benth. in Sitio Kay Inglesia, Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR), Philippines. The changes in basal area, stem density, biomass growth, species diversity, species evenness and richness, and canopy closure were determined between two study periods, i.e., 1993-2008 and 2009-2019. Results revealed significant changes in stem density (i.e., 1324 to 2135 trees ha-1) and canopy closure (i.e., 18% to 10%) for mature trees and seedlings/saplings in 2009-2019. The changes in basal area and aboveground biomass were not significant between the two study periods. The species richness was significantly higher in 2009-2019 (i.e., 55 species) than in 1993-2008 (i.e., 22 species). The species diversity also significantly increased from low (i.e., H' = 1.99, S = 23) to moderate (i.e., H' = 2.88, S = 55). Moreover, the number of exotics decreased (i.e., 60 to 40% or 15 to 9 species) as the number of native ones increased (i.e., 27 to 72% or 15 to 40 species). Therefore, the findings of the present study show that re-establishment of native species is possible when restoring degraded land with A. auriculiformis plantation. However, monitoring studies on other key ecosystem attributes (e.g., ecosystem functionality, external exchanges, structural diversity) of the plantation are recommended to enhance our understanding of the species' potential for restoration.

Growth and morpho-physiology of Tectona philippinensis under different water stress and soil conditions

Abstract. Hernandez JO, Tolentino CA, Quiñones LAE, Villancio GB, Maldia LSJ, Combalicer MS. 2021. Growth and morpho-physiology of Tectona philippinensis under different water stress and soil conditions. Biodiversitas 23: 507-513. Plants exhibit adaptive mechanisms to respond to fluctuating amounts of soil moisture and poor soil properties; however, these mechanisms remain largely unknown in many forest tree species growing in dry and limestone areas in the Philippines, such as the endemic and endangered Tectona philippinensis Benth & Hook.f. This study investigated the growth and morpho-physiological responses of T. philippinensis wildlings to water stress and soil types. One-year-old wildlings were subjected to two watering treatments, i.e., well-watered and water-stressed, and three different soil types, i.e., Lobo, Batangas, Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, and UP-Laguna-Quezon Land Grant. The root collar diameter, height, biomass allocations, and morpho-physiological traits (photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, transpiration, relative water content, specific leaf area, and stem green density) were measured. Overall, the growth performance of the wildlings was improved significantly when grown in soil from the natural habitat under WW conditions. Therefore, the recommended conservation approach potentially suitable for T. philippinensis is in-situ, particularly in riparian areas, when artificial irrigation is not possible and practical. The present study's findings provide us with a better understanding of the growth and ecophysiology of T. philippinensis under water-deficient conditions for its effective in-situ conservation.

Diversity of Bacteria in Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from Canopy and Understory of Selected Trees at Mount Makiling Forest Reserve, Laguna, Philippines

The Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) is a biodiversity hotspot and listed as one of the 170 conservation priority areas established by the Philippine government. Its flora and fauna diversity has been reported, but knowledge gap has been identified concerning the bacterial communities associated with the flora and fauna. This study focused on ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which are dominant in forest canopy and play essential roles in the ecosystem functionality. A metagenomic sequencing approach based on amplified V3–V4 regions of the 16S rRNA was employed to investigate the bacterial communities associated with five arboreal ant species collected from MMFR. The collected ants were identified as Dolichoderus thoracicus, Myrmicaria sp., Colobopsis leonardi, Polyrhachis mindanaensis, and Polyrhachis semiinermis. The sequence analyses revealed that Proteobacteria, Spirochaetes, Firmicutes, Bacteroides, and Actinobacteria were the most abundant phyla. Individual analysis of the bacterial genera associated with the five ant species showed that unclassified members of Rhizobiaceae, Orbaceae, and Burkholderiaceae were dominant in D. thoracicus. Unclassified members of Rhizobiaceae, Spirochaetaceae, and Ruminococcaceae were dominant in Myrmicaria sp. On the other hand, Candidatus Blochmannia, and Wolbachia were abundant in Camponotini ants C. leonardi, P. mindanaensis, and P. semiinermis. Bray-Curtis distance and UPGMA cluster analyses showed that the microbiomes of the Camponotini group clustered together, while D. thoracicus and Myrmicaria sp. exhibited unique bacterial profiles. Predictive gene profile analysis showed that the most functional categories were those associated with metabolism and biosynthesis of amino acids, pathways for metabolism of nucleotide, amino sugars and nitrogen, and utilization of different carbon sources.

Species and functional diversity of macrofungi from protected areas in mountain forest ecosystems of Southern Luzon, Philippines

Fungi and their functions are among the least studied component of the ecosystem such that not more than 10% were named based on global conservative species estimate. In the Philippines, the species described do not reflect on documentation and conservation efforts amidst threat of forest degradation and climate change. This study investigated the current macrofungal diversity in parts of three important protected mountain forest ecosystems in Southern Tagalog Region in the Philippines: Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR), Mount Banahaw-San Cristobal Protected Landscape (MBSCPL), and Quezon Protected Landscape (QPL). Macrofungal sporocarps were collected and documented from selected sites and preserved as voucher specimens. Samples were characterized using morphological, anatomical, and chemical properties then validated field identification from mycological herbarium and consulted experts. Sixteen species representing 11 families with Shannon diversity index of 2.79 were observed from MMFR. Collections from MBSCPL were 35 species under 19 families with Shannon diversity index of 3.14. QPL recorded 21 species from 12 families with Shannon diversity index of 3.04. The diversity of macrofungi from protected areas showed unique species composition based on non-metric multidimensional scaling with high dissimilarity based on Bray–Curtis Index, suggesting possible differences in carbon sink on forest floor. Functional diversity of recorded taxa described a balanced proportion of saprophytic and mycorrhizal fungi with few parasitic fungi having economic and cultural values. Variations in macrofungal species and functions could reflect on the status of protected areas in terms of productivity and sustainability, requiring extensive sampling and monitoring to cover macrofungi in biodiversity assessment and conservation programs in this region of the country.

Tree Composition, Diversity, and Stand Structure of Mid-montane Forest in Sipit Watershed, Mount Makiling Forest Reserve ASEAN Heritage Park, Philippines

This study aimed to establish benchmark data and assess diversity, stand structure, and identify species and habitats that need immediate protection and conservation and monitor ecosystems dynamics through time. A 2-ha long-term ecological research (LTER) plot was established in the mid-montane forest in Sipit Watershed of Mount Makiling Forest Reserve ASEAN Heritage Park (MMFR AHP). Fifty 20 m x 20 m subplots were established from the said 2-ha LTER plot and oriented 100 m north and 200 m east. Trees with diameter at breast height (DBH) of ≥ 10 cm were measured in fifty 20 m x 20 m plots. A total of 1,055 tree individuals belonging to 73 species among 49 genera and 33 families were inventoried. The importance value index (IVI) shows dominant species – namely, Antidesma pleuricum Tul. (40.40), Neolitsea vidalii Merr. (34.14), Palaquium philippense C.B.Rob. (27.77), Micromelum minutum (G.Forst) Wight & Arn. (27.50), and Syzygium barnesii (Merr.) Merr. (16.16). Further, the inventory recorded a total of 11 threatened species thriving in the area and several species suspected to be unique in the area or can only be found abundant therein. The study reveals that the population of P. philippense was maintained intact and preserved within the Sipit Watershed for about a hundred years. Findings also reveal a very high diversity at 3.32 Shannon diversity index with an evenness of 0.28 and relatively high endemism, where 44% (32 species) of the 73 species are endemic. The study is very significant in long-term vegetation dynamics for sustainable management and conservation of protected areas like MMFR AHP, as well as for future research and studies for biodiversity conservation, climate change, and protection of other mountain ecosystems.

Ecological Diversity of Pteridophytes Across Land Use Types in Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Luzon Island, Philippines

Changes are evident in fern species richness, composition, and abundance as a result of environmental changes caused by forest conversion to various land use types. This study identified fern species and described its distribution pattern with reference to ecological parameters obtained from various land use types across the northeastern slope of Mt. Makiling Forest Reserve, Los Baños, Philippines. The plot technique was employed using a 20x20 meter quadrat. Three 5x2 subquadrats were randomly distributed within the established quadrat. Cluster and ordination analysis were used and edaphic factors were analyzed. Fern specimens were identified (sensu PPG) and measured. Samples were collected for herbarium vouchers and were deposited at the Plant Biology Division Herbarium, University of the Philippines Los Baños (PBDH). Cluster analysis revealed six land use types: buffer, agroforest, agri-farm, roadside, mahogany, and forest. Twenty-nine (29) fern species belonging to 23 genera from 14 families were recorded across the different land use types. Among the land use types, the forest had the highest fern species richness (13) and the agri-farm and Mahogany had the least (6). Canonical correspondence analysis indicated that moisture, OM, pH, and CEC were significant explanatory drivers of fern distribution especially in the Mahogany and Agroforest land use type. Understanding the fern community patterns and edaphic factors in Mt. Makiling would aid in its conservation planning.

Morphological and Leaf Anatomical Characteristics of Different Variants of Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) Seedlings

Pterocarpus indicus, commonly known as narra, is one of the native leguminous trees in the Philippines that has occupied wide geographic distribution resulting in variability of its morphological and structural characteristics. In this study, the morphological and leaf anatomical features of four P. indicus variants (smooth narra – SN, short prickly narra – PNS, medium prickly narra – PNM, and long prickly narra – PNL) in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) were characterized. Based on seven morphological parameters, the mean root length, mean leaf number, and mean leaf area significantly separated the two major P. indicus forms. SN has a higher mean leaf number but shorter mean root length and smaller mean leaf area compared to the three variants of prickly narra (PNS, PNM, and PNL). Within the prickly narra (PN) variants, PNS and PNM showed distinct similarities based on six morphological parameters. At the same time, PNL seedlings have higher root-shoot ratio and mean biomass, indicating the greater capacity of this variant to store photosynthate material in its roots. The leaf anatomical parameters confirmed the similar features of two PN variants (PNS and PNM). Furthermore, the SN and PNL were significantly distinguished by the palisade and spongy mesophyll, xylem, and phloem area, where SN was considerably higher in all parameters except in the phloem area. This indicates that SN has a higher photosynthetic rate and has high storage capacity and ease of transport of water and organic matter. Thus, the morphological attributes and anatomical parameters contribute to further differentiating the two major forms of P. indicus.