Major Vegetation Types Research Articles

Divergent fire history trajectories in Central European temperate forests revealed a pronounced influence of broadleaved trees on fire dynamics

Fire occurrence is driven by a complex interplay between vegetation, climatic, landform and human factors making it challenging to separate the individual effect of each variable. Here we present a reconstruction of the Holocene biomass burning history of two regions located in the Central European temperate zone that differ in the timing of the Middle Holocene expansion of broadleaf-dominated forest communities. This allowed us to investigate the effect of biotic changes on past fire activity. Multiple-site charcoal accumulation records were used to estimate regional-scale trends in biomass burning and to compare them with major trajectories of vegetation development. Extensive 14C-dated soil charcoal records collected within both regions were amalgamated using a cumulative probability function to identify a stand-scale proxy of past fire occurrence. Our results suggest that rising vegetation productivity driven by rapid Early Holocene climate amelioration enhanced biomass burning. The increased fire activity during this period was driven by both a drier- and warmer-than-present climate and easily flammable fuels produced by conifer-dominated vegetation. We identified an inhibiting effect of the concomitant Fagus sylvatica expansion on levels of biomass burning that occurred asynchronously between our mountain and mid-elevation sandstone regions 6500 cal yr BP and 4900 cal yr BP, respectively. The amount of compositional change in plant communities was more related to the transformation of major vegetation types than to fluctuations in fire activity levels. The divergent timing of the fire decline in response to the Fagus sylvatica expansion implies biotic control over biomass burning that is independent of a direct climatic influence.

Multi‐annual contemporary flood event overbank sedimentation within the vegetated lower Orinoco floodplain, Venezuela

AbstractMulti‐annual contemporary flood event overbank sedimentation rates were quantified on the World's third largest river in terms of discharge, the tropical lower Orinoco. We discuss the role of variables at the basin and reach scales that contributed to the complexity of spatio‐temporal overbank sediment deposition patterns. Monitored in situ plots were characterized by distance to the main channel, hydroperiod, different geomorphological units, and vegetation cover. Flood event sedimentation rates showed a high spatial variability ranging from the absence of sediment deposition up to 225.46 kg m‐2 yr‐1. Banks and levees received relatively high amounts of sediment (39.6 kg m‐2 yr‐1), whereas observed mean sedimentation rates on the more distant floodplain and backswamps tended to be lower (17.7 kg m‐2 yr‐1). Significant differences in sedimentation rates were observed in two major vegetation types: dense herbaceous and shrubby vegetation (42.2 kg m‐2 yr‐1) and floodplain forest (12.7 kg m‐2 yr‐1). However, overbank sedimentation patterns also reflected imbricated hydrosedimentary and biogeomorphological vegetation feedbacks that co‐construct fluvial landforms. The incidence of an El Niño–Southern Oscillation–La Niña episode during the study period on sediment availability and floodplain sedimentation suggests that within whitewater rivers, where suspended sediment concentrations are naturally high, hydrological connectivity seems to be more important for floodplain sedimentation than variations in suspended sediment concentrations. These results may provide a good basis for future biogeomorphological investigation projects using complementary methodologies, in order to better anticipate global change and fluctuations in the occurrence, strength or duration of El Niño–La Niña episodes in the tropical zone and their consequences for flood discharge and sediment dynamics during channel–floodplain exchanges.

A meta-analysis of 1,119 manipulative experiments on terrestrial carbon-cycling responses to global change.

Direct quantification of terrestrial biosphere responses to global change is crucial for projections of future climate change in Earth system models. Here, we synthesized ecosystem carbon-cycling data from 1,119 experiments performed over the past four decades concerning changes in temperature, precipitation, CO2 and nitrogen across major terrestrial vegetation types of the world. Most experiments manipulated single rather than multiple global change drivers in temperate ecosystems of the USA, Europe and China. The magnitudes of warming and elevated CO2 treatments were consistent with the ranges of future projections, whereas those of precipitation changes and nitrogen inputs often exceeded the projected ranges. Increases in global change drivers consistently accelerated, but decreased precipitation slowed down carbon-cycle processes. Nonlinear (including synergistic and antagonistic) effects among global change drivers were rare. Belowground carbon allocation responded negatively to increased precipitation and nitrogen addition and positively to decreased precipitation and elevated CO2. The sensitivities of carbon variables to multiple global change drivers depended on the background climate and ecosystem condition, suggesting that Earth system models should be evaluated using site-specific conditions for best uses of this large dataset. Together, this synthesis underscores an urgent need to explore the interactions among multiple global change drivers in underrepresented regions such as semi-arid ecosystems, forests in the tropics and subtropics, and Arctic tundra when forecasting future terrestrial carbon-climate feedback.

Diversity of Plant Species Composition and Forest Vegetation Cover of Dong Nai Culture and Nature Reserve, Vietnam

The obtained results from the study undertaken on the composition of plant species and forest vegetation in Dong Nai Reserve indicated a record of 864 species, 479 genera and 146 families that belongs to the four divisions of vascular plants. These includes: Lycopodiophyta, Polypodiophyta, Pinophyta and Magnoliophyta. Useful plants of 864 taxonomy species listed consists of 540 species of medicinal plants, 157 species of timber plants, 88 species of edible plants, 40 species of ornamental plants, 18 species of industrial plants, 15 species of fiber plants and 6 species of unknown use plants, respectively. During the duration of investigation, Cissus modeccoides Planch. and Goniothalamus vietnamensis Ban. were newly recorded in the forest vegetation of Dong Nai Reserve. One of the recorded species, named Goniothalamus vietnamensis is endangered medicinal plants in Vietnam. A variety of forest vegetations in the area under study is described. In this study, four major vegetation types of forest were identified in Dong Nai Reserve.

Habitat Climate Change Vulnerability Index Applied to Major Vegetation Types of the Western Interior United States

We applied a framework to assess climate change vulnerability of 52 major vegetation types in the Western United States to provide a spatially explicit input to adaptive management decisions. The framework addressed climate exposure and ecosystem resilience; the latter derived from analyses of ecosystem sensitivity and adaptive capacity. Measures of climate change exposure used observed climate change (1981–2014) and then climate projections for the mid-21st century (2040–2069 RCP 4.5). Measures of resilience included (under ecosystem sensitivity) landscape intactness, invasive species, fire regime alteration, and forest insect and disease risk, and (under adaptive capacity), measures for topo-climate variability, diversity within functional species groups, and vulnerability of any keystone species. Outputs are generated per 100 km2 hexagonal area for each type. As of 2014, moderate climate change vulnerability was indicated for >50% of the area of 50 of 52 types. By the mid-21st century, all but 19 types face high or very high vulnerability with >50% of the area scoring in these categories. Measures for resilience explain most components of vulnerability as of 2014, with most targeted vegetation scoring low in adaptive capacity measures and variably for specific sensitivity measures. Elevated climate exposure explains increases in vulnerability between the current and mid-century time periods.

Bog breathing: the extent of peat shrinkage and expansion on blanket bogs in relation to water table, heather management and dominant vegetation and its implications for carbon stock assessments

Peatlands represent a globally important carbon stock. Peat soil carbon stock assessments rely on measurements of carbon concentration, bulk density and soil depth. However, peat surface levels - and thus soil depths - change (“bog breathing”) largely as a response to peat shrinkage and expansion in relation to water table changes. This study assessed the magnitude of and potential for this mechanism to influence carbon stock calculations under field and laboratory conditions. In the UK, most peatlands are upland blanket bogs, of which a large proportion are managed as ‘grouse moors’. This currently involves rotational burning, although alternative management is increasingly considered. Peat depth and water tables were investigated on three grouse moors on blanket bog in northern England, comparing changes under different heather management interventions (burning, mowing and uncut). One site also allowed investigation of changes in relation to slope and under the three major bog vegetation types (ling heather, cottongrass and Sphagnum moss), which were compared to observed changes in peat cores under controlled laboratory conditions simulating periods of drought and rewetting. Changes in depth and bulk density were recorded and the potential implications for carbon stock estimates were calculated. Results highlight site specific relationships as potential habitat condition indicators and demonstrate that previously reported surface peat carbon losses resulting from enhanced decomposition under rising temperatures might also be explained by apparent changes due to peat shrinkage and expansion. It is recommended to accurately record bulk density and total peat depth measurements as part of peat carbon stock assessments.

Atlantic forest and leaf traits: an overview

Leaf traits in Atlantic forest are modulated by environmental filters and biotic interactions. More information about leaf traits and nutrient are needed. Categorizing tree species according to their relationships with ecosystem processes in the Atlantic forest (AF) biome is fundamental to better understand their functionality in this high biodiversity hotspot. For categorizing vegetation, leaf traits are extremely useful and this is the first compilation of leaf traits focusing on photosynthesis, water relations, nutrients, and functional diversity across major AF vegetation types: (1) rainforest (ombrophilous dense and mixed ombrophilous Araucaria forest), (2) seasonal semi-deciduous forest, (3) deciduous forests, and (4) coastal plain forests (restingas). Species showed high plasticity of photosynthetic traits from early developmental stages, including adjustments in Rubisco carboxylation capacity, maximum photosynthetic capacity, photochemical and non-photochemical quenching, specific leaf area (SLA), and chlorophyll and spongy parenchyma thickness. Montane rainforest tree species showed lower SLA and longer leaf lifespan in comparison to lowland rainforest species. Tree communities are structured by environmental filtering leading to trait convergence in early successional stages or in stressful ecosystems such as restingas, and by biotic interactions leading to trait divergence in later stages. Altitudinal gradients in litter production and below/aboveground biomass stocks in AF show contrasting patterns in comparison to other tropical forests, with important consequences for responding to climate change. However, the identity of limiting elements to growth still represents a critical gap in leaf trait data for AF species. Other gaps in knowledge of AF leaf traits are highlighted for consideration in future studies.

Carbon stocks for different land cover types in Mainland Tanzania

BackgroundDeveloping countries participating in the mitigation mechanism of reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), are required to establish a forest reference emission level (FREL), if they wish to seek financial support to reduce carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. However, establishment of FREL relies heavily on the accurate estimates of carbon stock as one of the input variable for computation of the emission factors (EFs). The product of an EF and activity data, such as the area of deforestation, results in the total emissions needed for establishment of FREL. This study presents the carbon stock estimates for different land cover classes based on an analysis of Tanzania’s national forest inventory data generated through the National Forest Resources Monitoring and Assessment (NAFORMA).ResultsCarbon stocks were estimated in three carbon pools, namely aboveground, belowground, and deadwood for each of the three land cover classes (i.e. Forest, non-forest, and wetland). The weighted average carbon stock was 33.35 t C ha−1 for forest land, 4.28 t ha−1 for wetland and 5.81 t ha−1 for non-forest land. The uncertainty values were 0.9% for forest land, 11.3% for wetland and 1.8% for non-forest land. Average carbon stocks for land cover sub-classes, which make up the above mentioned major land cover classes, are also presented in our study.ConclusionsThe values presented in this paper correspond to IPCC tier 3 and can be used for carbon estimation at the national scale for the respective major primary vegetation type for various purposes including REDD+. However, if local based estimates values are needed, the use of auxiliary data to enhance the precision of the area of interest is recommended.

Spatial and temporal distribution of open bio-mass burning in China from 2013 to 2017

Open bio-mass burning plays an important role in the formation of heavy pollution events during harvest seasons in China by releasing the trace gases and particulate matters into the atmosphere. A better understanding of spatial-temporal variations of open bio-mass burning in China is required to assess its impacts on the air quality and especially on the heavy haze pollution. The MODIS fire spots data and the calculated burned areas were used in this research, which shows the varying number of fire spots in China from 2013 to 2017, with the highest in 2014 and the lowest in 2016. Meanwhile, the fire spots were found mainly concentrated in three key periods (March–April, June and October–November) and two zones (Zone 1 and Zone 2) with inter-annual variations of burned areas. In addition, the contribution of major vegetation types burning was studied, the cropland occupied the largest proportion of burned area of more than 70% in any period time, followed by forest. Finally, from the perspective of climate and human activities, the causes of inter-annual variations were discussed. By comparing the average temperature and precipitation in the two zones from 2013 to 2017, it was found that the burned forest area is positively correlated with the average temperature of the zones and negatively correlated with the average precipitation. Meanwhile, the relationship between the El Niño events and the bio-mass burning was discussed.

Effects of mesophyll conductance on vegetation responses to elevated CO2 concentrations in a land surface model.

Mesophyll conductance (g m) is known to affect plant photosynthesis. However, g m is rarely explicitly considered in land surface models (LSMs), with the consequence that its role in ecosystem and large‐scale carbon and water fluxes is poorly understood. In particular, the different magnitudes of g m across plant functional types (PFTs) are expected to cause spatially divergent vegetation responses to elevated CO2 concentrations. Here, an extensive literature compilation of g m across major vegetation types is used to parameterize an empirical model of g m in the LSM JSBACH and to adjust photosynthetic parameters based on simulated A n − C i curves. We demonstrate that an explicit representation of g m changes the response of photosynthesis to environmental factors, which cannot be entirely compensated by adjusting photosynthetic parameters. These altered responses lead to changes in the photosynthetic sensitivity to atmospheric CO2 concentrations which depend both on the magnitude of g m and the climatic conditions, particularly temperature. We then conducted simulations under ambient and elevated (ambient + 200 μmol/mol) CO2 concentrations for contrasting ecosystems and for historical and anticipated future climate conditions (representative concentration pathways; RCPs) globally. The g m‐explicit simulations using the RCP8.5 scenario resulted in significantly higher increases in gross primary productivity (GPP) in high latitudes (+10% to + 25%), intermediate increases in temperate regions (+5% to + 15%), and slightly lower to moderately higher responses in tropical regions (−2% to +5%), which summed up to moderate GPP increases globally. Similar patterns were found for transpiration, but with a lower magnitude. Our results suggest that the effect of an explicit representation of g m is most important for simulated carbon and water fluxes in the boreal zone, where a cold climate coincides with evergreen vegetation.

Long-term continuity of mixed-species broadleaves could reach a synergy between timber production and soil carbon sequestration in subtropical China

Tree species and forest age are two key variables affecting timber production and carbon sequestration in forest ecosystems. In this study, in Jiangxi province of eastern China, by a thorough investigation of 179 subtropical forest stands in a 16.7 × 106 ha area with similar climatic conditions and past land-use history, we systematically examined biomass of live aboveground tree, forest floor litter, shrub and herb as well as soil organic carbon (SOC) content (0–10, 10–30 and 30–100 cm depths) to compare differences among five major vegetation types (Chinese fir, masson pine, single-species broadleaves, mixed conifers-broadleaves, and mixed-species broadleaves), and between age classes (below vs above 30 years of stand age). Tree species and stand age both had significant effects. Among the five forest types, mixed-species broadleaved forests had remarkably highest timber productivity, SOC content and storage in the 0–100 cm depth and total C store in the age group of above 30 years. Coniferous stands had generally higher forest floor biomass than broadleaved stands in the age group of below 30 years; this trend was opposite for mineral soil C in the age group of above 30 years. Stand age significantly affected aboveground timber production for all the tree species; this effect was weaker on belowground soil C, as broadleaves exhibited increases in SOC content with stand age while conifers did not. Our results suggest that long-term continuity (>30 years) of mixed-species broadleaves could be an optimal strategy for forests in subtropical region of China. This study contributes to a better understanding of the effects of management practices on forest ecosystems.

English

The Kimbi Fungom National Park is reported to be relatively less diverse compared to other national parks of Cameroon. This might be due to the configuration of the landscape and habitat types. The main objective of this study is to determine the species composition, structure and diversity in the heterogeneous landscape of the Kimbi Fungom National Park defined by different habitat types. The park was divided into 20 blocks and 10 blocks were randomly selected for this flora survey. In each block, a 1 km line transect was established with 5 quadrates of 20 × 20 m. These transects were laid to cut across four major vegetation types (lowland rainforest, gallery forest, woodland and grassland savanna). A total of 2831 stems ³1 cm circumference were identified and measured. This belongs to 222 species, in 54 families. Fabaceae, Rubiaceae and Euphorbiaceae were found to be the most dominant plant families. Tree density and basal area were lowest in the grassland while it was highest in the lowland forest. Species composition and diversity varied with vegetation type and landscape configuration. The lowland and gallery forest were characterized by high diversity and similar species composition shown by the Shannon diversity index of 3.8 and forest 3.75, respectively. Three species from our survey were known to be endemic to Cameroon (Allophyllus bullatus, Cleistopholis staudtii and Magnistipula butayei) while 6 species were known to be vulnerable; Afzelia africana, Afzelia bipindensis, Allophyllus bullatus, Entandrophragma angolense, Hallea stipulosa, and Quassia sanguine. Key words: Flora composition, vegetation structure, species diversity, heterogeneous landscape.

Impact of seasonal changes on the vegetation composition of some selected areas in Lagos state, Nigeria

Rapid degradation of wetlands and habitat fragmentation are major threats to species diversity and ecological paradigm in Lagos state, Nigeria. Best to our knowledge, no empirical study has explored the effects of seasonal changes on covering three major cities in the statewithin the major cities in Lagos state. For this, we carried out a study covering the three major cities in Lagos: Badagry, Epe and Ikorodu. Permanent plots were randomly established for monthly data collection (quadrat method; size=10 x 10 m), that span across one-year period covering the wet and dry season). We observed two major vegetation types (secondary forest and mangrove) in the studied areas. Additionally, we documented 107 species belonging to 90 genera and 40 families. Species diversity analysis indicated higher diversity, abundance, species richness and evenness in Ikorodu and Epe during the wet has a greater while high species diversity was observed in Badagry during the dry season. The Dahomey gap phenomenon have greater implication on the Badagry vegetation while the coastal nature of Epe and Badagry negatively influenced their vegetation structure. Analyses inferred that species diversity pattern in the studied area seem to be determined by seasonal changes alongside anthropogenic activities and as a environmental factors (rainfall, geomorphology and geology). Further, our result suggests that Ikorodu could be regarded potential biodiversity hotspot area for conservation purposes because of its high floral composition and diversity. Therefore, improved management and conservation of the vegetation of the Ikorodu area is hereby recommended. The findings from this study will be useful in guiding the Physical Planning and Urban Development and Environment ministries in Lagos state for appropriate management and monitoring of developmental projects for sustainable development.

Vegetation on mesic loamy and sandy soils along a 1700-km maritime Eurasia Arctic Transect.

QuestionsHow do plant communities on zonal loamy vs. sandy soils vary across the full maritime Arctic bioclimate gradient? How are plant communities of these areas related to existing vegetation units of the European Vegetation Classification? What are the main environmental factors controlling transitions of vegetation along the bioclimate gradient?Location1700‐km Eurasia Arctic Transect (EAT), Yamal Peninsula and Franz Josef Land (FJL), Russia.MethodsThe Braun‐Blanquet approach was used to sample mesic loamy and sandy plots on 14 total study sites at six locations, one in each of the five Arctic bioclimate subzones and the forest–tundra transition. Trends in soil factors, cover of plant growth forms (PGFs) and species diversity were examined along the summer warmth index (SWI) gradient and on loamy and sandy soils. Classification and ordination were used to group the plots and to test relationships between vegetation and environmental factors.ResultsClear, mostly non‐linear, trends occurred for soil factors, vegetation structure and species diversity along the climate gradient. Cluster analysis revealed seven groups with clear relationships to subzone and soil texture. Clusters at the ends of the bioclimate gradient (forest–tundra and polar desert) had many highly diagnostic taxa, whereas clusters from the Yamal Peninsula had only a few. Axis 1 of a DCA was strongly correlated with latitude and summer warmth; Axis 2 was strongly correlated with soil moisture, percentage sand and landscape age.ConclusionsSummer temperature and soil texture have clear effects on tundra canopy structure and species composition, with consequences for ecosystem properties. Each layer of the plant canopy has a distinct region of peak abundance along the bioclimate gradient. The major vegetation types are weakly aligned with described classes of the European Vegetation Checklist, indicating a continuous floristic gradient rather than distinct subzone regions. The study provides ground‐based vegetation data for satellite‐based interpretations of the western maritime Eurasian Arctic, and the first vegetation data from Hayes Island, Franz Josef Land, which is strongly separated geographically and floristically from the rest of the gradient and most susceptible to on‐going climate change.

Net primary productivity dynamics and associated hydrological driving factors in the floodplain wetland of China's largest freshwater lake

Wetlands are thought to be the most unique ecosystem in the world which plays an important role in water and material circulation. However, investigation of ecosystem dynamics in those lake floodplain wetlands that suffering rapid and significant short-term water level fluctuation is quite a challenge. In this study, the short- and long-term characteristics of vegetation NPP (net primary productivity) and their driving mechanism were investigated in the Poyang Lake floodplain wetland, an important international wetland that listed in the Global Eco-region by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Attempts were achieved through validating the Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach (CASA) model based on observed biomasses of different vegetation types and reconstructed continuous high spatiotemporal resolution (30 m and 16 days) of NDVI data during 2000–2015 according to the fused Landsat and MODIS data. Major result indicates that the intra-annual variation of NPP of most vegetation types shows two peaks in a year due to combined effects of vegetation growth rhythm and seasonal exposure of the lake floodplain. Annual NPP of the lake floodplain ranges in 360.09–735.94 gC/m2 and shows an increasing trend during the study period. The change of NPP in space indicates that the distribution elevation of the major vegetation types decreased and evoluted toward the center lake floodplain. Different from the terrestrial ecosystem, inundation duration is the dominant factor that controls NPP dynamics in the lake floodplain, while the influences of other meteorological factors are much weakened. Recent decline of lake water level was the major reason for the spatio-temporal evolution of annual and seasonal vegetation NPP in the lake floodplain.

Functional traits but not environmental gradients explain seed weight in Mongolian plant species.

Seed weight varies by several orders of magnitude among vascular plant species. However, the importance of potential drivers such as environmental conditions and plant functional traits have rarely been assessed for a larger taxonomic sample. We collected seeds of 148 species from 237 sites spread across Mongolia and compared their weight among the major zonal vegetation types, taxonomic groups and a set of functional traits (growth form, dispersal mode, fruit type, storage organs and palatability). Seed weight strongly varied among all functional traits and taxonomic groups, but no differences among vegetation zones were detected. These results suggest a low impact of environmental conditions on the evolution of seed weight, contrasting the strong phylogenetic signal.

The impacts of geographic, soil and climatic factors on plant diversity, biomass and their relationships of the alpine dry ecosystems: Cases from the Aerjin Mountain Nature Reserve, China

Spatial patterns of plant species diversity, functional diversity, and aboveground plant biomass, and their relationships with environmental factors in the Aerjin Mountain Nature Reserve (AMNR) on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China were examined in this study. The transect-quadrat sampling method was applied to sample the plant species and functional diversity and the aboveground plant biomass. Statistical package F-diversity v. 2011 was used to calculate the functional diversity index. OriginPro 9.0 drawing software was used to diagram 3-dimensional (longitudinal, latitudinal, and altitudinal) distribution patterns of plant diversity, plant biomass and environmental factors. Correlations among plant biomass, species diversity, functional diversity, and environmental factors were analyzed by using SPSS16.0. The results indicated that alpine steppe was the major vegetation type in high-altitude areas of the southwestern region of the AMNR, alpine wet meadow and alpine steppe were the major vegetation types in low altitude areas of the northeastern region of the AMNR. The vegetation types in mid-altitude areas of the northwestern region and low altitude areas of the southeastern region of the AMNR were primarily alpine desert. Plant species diversity and biomass did not vary significantly along latitudinal, longitudinal, and altitudinal gradients. Plant species diversity was positively correlated with soil total nitrogen, total carbon, organic carbon, and moisture. The functional diversity of the plant community was positively correlated with precipitation and soil moisture. Vegetation biomass was positively correlated with soil total nitrogen, organic carbon, and soil moisture, whereas it was negatively correlated with soil bulk density. Plant species diversity was positively correlated with the functional diversity of the plant community. The integrated effects of geographic factors, soil factors, and meteorological conditions contributed to the spatial heterogeneity of species biodiversity and vegetation biomass of the plant communities in the AMNR, whereas the effects of soil and climatic factors were much stronger than those of geographical factors.

Sustainability and future food security—A global perspective for livestock production

AbstractGrasslands are the predominant forage source for grazing animals and cover more of the Earth's land than any other major vegetation type. Their values are not always recognised, and conversion to other uses is continuing at a high rate leading to greater environmental and socio‐economic problems. Overgrazing is one of the main drivers of productivity decline of grasslands, reflecting the pressures from excessive human populations and a demand for food. Some 20% of the world's grasslands are in a severely degraded state; others have suffered shifts to less‐desirable species. Biodiversity and greenhouse gas production have also been particular concerns. Estimates of productivity change all show a decline over recent decades, yet animal numbers continue to increase, particularly in the developing world. This paper critically reviews the projected demands for livestock products, driven largely by human population growth; the current health of the world's grasslands and how current livestock systems that depend on land conversion and overexploitation of grassland are inappropriate and need to be improved. Central to this argument is that small holders in the developing world will be responsible for a large amount of the future red meat production, and this can be achieved through more efficient livestock production systems using lower stocking rates. The Australian sheep industry is provided as an example of how livestock production and reduced environmental impacts can be achieved with improved efficiency. Changes will require smallholders to transition to a competitive, market‐oriented livestock industry, which will provide challenges.

The Middle Miocene Central European Plant Record Revisited; Widespread Subhumid Sclerophyllous Forests Indicated

The Middle Miocene plant record from the wider Central Paratethys region (Central Paratethys, the North Alpine Foredeep, Carpathian Foredeep, the Swabian Alb and southern parts of the Bohemian Massif) was analysed by the Integrated Plant Record (IPR) vegetation analysis to assess major vegetation types. The plant assemblages at 27 sites accumulated under very different sedimentological settings and refl ect heterogeneous environments. Although of very different origin, the plant record delivers a fairly consistent signal towards subhumid sclerophyllous forests (ShSF) as the most likely major zonal vegetation unit for the Langhian/Serravallian. Today, such forests develop under seasonal climate with pronounced seasonal changes in precipitation. The fl oristic characteristics are outlined and the record is compared to that of the preceding and the following Miocene periods.

Climate risk on two vegetation axes—Tropical wet‐to‐dry and temperate arid‐to‐moist forests

AbstractAimAssess climatic risk to vegetation types associated with tropical and temperate ecosystems based on exposure analysis, which models future risk as a function of deviation from current climate variable distributions.LocationOaxaca State, Mexico.TaxonBroadly defined vegetation types used in state‐ and national‐level vegetation classification systems. These types can be grouped into series representing dry‐to‐wet conditions for tropical and temperate vegetation.MethodsWe used climate exposure analysis to compare current and future climate parameters for the major vegetation types of Oaxaca. This technique integrates a recent vegetation map with historical climate data (1981–2010) to produce a baseline climate layer that is compared to climate projections made with five different global circulation models for near‐future (2015–2039) and end‐century (2075–2099) periods using two emissions scenarios (RCP 4.5 and 8.5). We classified the frequency distribution of the baseline climate into five exposure classes where the closer values are to mean climate conditions, the lower the exposure. Future exposure was estimated by classifying the vegetation pixels into the same exposure classes, now based on future climate values. Increased exposure risk was assessed based on the fraction of pixels that moved into higher exposure classes from one period to another.Results and main conclusionsOur analysis showed four general trends: (a) the higher, current track emissions scenario produced much larger end‐century climate exposure; (b) for the tropical vegetation series, tropical evergreen forests are projected as most exposed by end‐century; (c) for the temperate vegetation series the matorral‐shrubland and conifer forests are the most impacted; and (d) the five GCMs considered showed some convergence in their end‐century climate exposure predictions, with coastal and low‐elevation areas of the State projected to experience the greatest exposure, and the interior mountain slopes and central region projected to experience the least exposure and be the most climatically stable.