Major Source Of Income Research Articles

Land use conversion, climate change and soil organic carbon: Modeling a citrus garden chronosequence in Northern Iran

After forest clearing and shift to high-production agriculture, land use conversion significantly impacts soil quality and reduces soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. In Mazandaran province (Northern Iran), significant deforestation has occurred for many decades, and citrus orchards represent the major source of income for local farmers. Therefore, the RothC model was used to evaluate the changes in SOC stocks and the effects of climate change (CC) on SOC stocks after the conversion of a natural forest to citrus gardens (CG) of different ages, namely ≤10 years old (CG ≤ 10), 11–15 years old (CG15) and 16–20 years old (CG20). We also investigated two General Circulation Models (MPI ESM-LR and MIROC-ESM-CHEM) and two CO2 Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) on SOC stocks for a period of 30 years. Under CC conditions (2019–2048), SOC stocks increased in both emission scenarios in the natural forest (0.13–0.16 Mg C ha−1 yr−1) with the MPI ESM-LR model, but in citrus gardens, the increase was lower (0.10–0.11 Mg C ha−1 yr−1). Conversely, with the MIROC-ESM-CHEM model, SOC stocks decreased in both land covers. However, the decrease was higher in the natural forest (0.24 Mg C ha−1 yr−1) compared with the citrus gardens (0.11 Mg C ha−1 yr−1) under the high emission scenario. The study also allows identifying possible future strategies for better management of citrus gardens in this region from a climate change perspective.

The Impact of Remittances on Children’s Education in Bangladesh

Inward remittance is one of the major sources of foreign income for Bangladesh and its economic significance at both macro and household levels is evident in the existing literature. This study iassesses the impact of remittances on school enrolment of children in Bangladesh by utilising cross-sectional household-level data obtained from the Household Income and Expenditure Survey 2016. Employing a probit regression method for the analysis, our findings reveal a positive relationship between school enrolment of children and remittances as expected. Furthermore, the education levels of parents are found to have a significant positive impact on the school enrolment of children. Our results also suggest that households with two or three children are more likely to enrol their children in schools as opposed to households with just one child and those with four or more children. However, household location (urban) and gender of children (male) exhibit a negative impact on enrolment. This study suggests that along with the current incentives provided to migrant workers sending remittances, the government can also implement modified or additional incentives to enhance the enrolment of children from remittance-receiving families. Also, to address the issues of lower enrolment among children from urban areas, male children and households with just one child, policymakers should develop new intervention programmes while sensitising the public on the benefits of acquiring education.

LOAN APPROVAL PREDICTION BASED ON MACHINE LEARNING APPROACH

Banks have various goods to sell in the banking system. The major source of income and profit, however, is their credit lines. As a result, they can profit from the interest on the loans they credit. The profit or loss of a bank is mostly determined by loans, that is, whether consumers repay the loan or default. The bank can lower its Non-Performing Assets by forecasting loan defaulters. Previous research in this age has revealed that there are numerous techniques for studying the subject of loan default control. However, because accurate forecasts are critical for profit maximization, it is critical to investigate the nature of the various methodologies and compare them. In this research, the datasets used were gathered from Kaggle for training and testing. The results gotten from both datasets were compared to ascertain which algorithm could best be used for predicting loan approval and also to determine which features are most important in predicting loan approval. The different metrics of performance that were used to define the results are: Accuracy, Precision, Recall and F1-Score. Eight different algorithms were used to train the models, these are: the Logistic Regression algorithm, Random forest, Decision trees, Linear Regression, Support Vector Machine (SVM), Naïve Bayes, K-means and K Nearest Neighbors (KNN) algorithms. The final results revealed that the models generated varied outcomes. From the results shown across both datasets, Logistic regression had - 83.24% and 78.13% of accuracy, followed by Naïve Bayes with 82.16% and 77.34% accuracy level, Random Forest

Determinants of Household Healthcare Choice Behavior: A Study in Purulia District, West Bengal

A well organised healthcare system is one of the pillars of a society’s social and economic infrastructure. Efficient healthcare system is one of the important indicators of development. In times of global epidemics Covid-19 healthcare seeking behaviour has become an important issue. People adjust their treatment modalities based on the health system. Poor families in particular have very limited access to medical care; they usually rely on government medical facilities because they cannot afford private treatment. On the other hand, even in rural areas, access to medical care limited due to lack of additional healthcare facilities. Therefore in rural area’s it is very important to diagnose the factors that influence the health seeking behaviour of the household. The Specific objectives of the study are to investigate health status of households across Purulia district using secondary data from NFHS- 4 (2015-2016) and to determine the factors that influencing health seeking behaviour of the sample households. We have visited randomly selected three villages of Kashipur block in Purulia district, West Bengal and surveyed two hundred households. To determine the factors that influencing household healthcare seeking behaviour we have fitted logit model. The explanatory variables monthly average family income, household head’s education, number of members in a household above 60 years, number of members in a household below 6 years, having at least one member who consume medicines during the whole year, effect of Covid-19 on income, effect of Covid-19 on health, social category, village residence have positive significant impact on the probability of household members seeking treatment from both government and private places. We consider ST as our base and find that the general community has significant impact on the household members receiving treatment from both government and private places. From the result we find that the major source of income of the sample households has no significant impact on the healthcare seeking behaviour of sample households.

Trade and food security in a climate change‐impacted world

AbstractToday's climate‐turbulent world is rife with food insecurity—threatening economic development trajectories by stunting growth, subsequently reducing employability and labor productivity, especially for developing countries. The pandemic has exacerbated these adverse effects and reveals the critical need to put in place policies that can safeguard and sustain trade flows in agricultural products. For the vast majority of countries, food security cannot be guaranteed by domestic production alone. If certain crops are domestically untenable or yields are temporarily poor, imports are essential. Additionally, exports of agricultural products provide a major source of income for some of the poorest people around the world. This article explores the interplay between climate change, the production and the trade of agricultural products, and the resulting food security implications. It then examines the existing trade policies governing agricultural trade and provides recommendations for action at the global, regional, and country levels.

Measurement and Decomposition of Income Inequality among Agricultural Households in Andhra Pradesh

This study attempted to measure and decompose income inequality with the hypothesis that livestock is a major income source, and the value of farm assets is a major factor in increasing income inequality among agricultural households. The results revealed that livestock and agricultural wages had a larger equalizing effect across the income sources, and cultivation and off-farm had an un-equalizing effect on income distribution. The findings suggested that livestock and work opportunities in off-farm as an agricultural labourer can serve as potential sectors for marginal and small farmers to enhance income and minimize income variability across landholding categories.

Gold companies and local economic sustainability: the case of Kalsaka Mining SA in Burkina Faso

ABSTRACT Gold mining is a major source of income and economic growth, but imposes substantial environmental and health burdens on local communities. Estimating the relative economic gains and health costs of mining for local communities is a key step towards ensuring better natural resource management and environmental justice, but remains methodologically challenging. The objective of this article is to analyse the contribution of Kalsaka Mining SA to local economic sustainability during the operating phase (2008–2013). A cost-benefit analysis is used in comparing Kalsaka Mining SA local investment and its environmental damage (health cost) during mine lifetime. The net price method is used to evaluate resources rent from Kalsaka mining site exploitation while human capital approach is considered in health damage estimation. The results indicate that rent invested in the local economy was relatively low compared to health cost, implying that Kalsaka Mining SA contribution was largely insufficient to put the local economy on sustainable path.

The potential of timber-agroforestry to meet Sarawak’s forestry demand

Many forest communities in Sarawak, and globally, practise some form of smallholder management system including agroforestry. Yet, agroforestry practitioners predominantly focus on non-timber crops as the major source of income while the timber output remains underutilized and understudied. Smallholder timber agroforestry systems, therefore, have huge potential to equitably meet the increasing demand for both timber and food while reducing the pressure on natural forests. We investigate the readiness of agroforestry smallholders in Sarawak to supply timber commercially, and the opportunities and challenges they face. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with Sarawak forestry stakeholders including agroforestry farmers, timber industry actors, civil society organizations, academia, and government agencies. Descriptive statistics are used to analyse the data. Our results demonstrate that smallholders in Sarawak lack technical silvicultural and horticultural knowledge and formal timber market access, despite majority smallholders expressing interest in timber production. The underutilization of smallholder timber is linked with conservation and protection objectives. Legal constraints, limited capacity building and lack of market information were cited as major barriers for smallholders. Key recommendations to lower barriers for smallholder participation include provision of resources and an enabling legal framework that harmonizes agriculture and forestry demands while being inclusive of smallholders’ perspectives and realities.

Increasing Non-Interest Income in Banks from the Use of Credit and Debit Cards in ATMs: A Novel Approach

Most of the online banking channels have a favourable impact on the fee based ROA and ROE of both SBI and ICICI; except for the use of credit and debit cards in ATMs; Guha et al (2020). In this paper, regression model has been used to show the impact of use of credit and debit cards at ATMs on the commission, excise and brokerage of both banks; and a multiple regression model has been developed which will help in increasing fee-based income from the use of credit and debit cards in ATMs. This has important implications for the banking sector as well as the government; because, online banking channels contribute directly towards commission, exchange and brokerage of banks and these are a major source of non-interest income. Fees on the use of credit cards and debit cards in ATMs are levied on the basis of the number of transactions. However, no fees are levied on the basis of the amount of transactions. This lacuna that exists in the banking system demands attention. The aim of this paper is to make appropriate suggestions to increase the fee-based income from the use of credit and debit cards in ATMs.

English

Maize is the most important cereal crop in Ethiopia in terms of plantation area, production volume, and economic importance for food security. Despite the relative yield increment at the national level, maize production in the study area has been hindered by a couple of factors. This study was conducted to assess and evaluate maize production constraints in the Hawassa Zuria district. Primary data was collected from 60 randomly selected maize producers. Accordingly, socioeconomic factors such as sex (β = -2.02), educational level (β = 0.18), total livestock unit (TLU) (β = 0.27), and major income source (β for agriculture = 2.75 and β for private works = 3.05) could significantly influence maize production and productivity at 1% probability level. The institutional factors such as access to agricultural inputs, extension services, credit, irrigation, and membership in rural cooperatives; and agronomic factors such as fertilizer use, planting density, weeding frequency, tillage mechanisms, and pest and disease infestation were identified as the major challenges likely influencing maize production in the study area. Based on the study outcomes, policy recommendation is made such as improving the educational level, enhancing input access and empowering farmers to adopt and apply a full package of agronomic practices that help to improve soil fertility and thus crop productivity. As a result, addressing these constraints would be critical to improving food production. Key words: Agronomic factors, determinants, maize, multiple linear regression, production and productivity, policy recommendation.

When money meets tradition: How new cash incomes could be risky for a vulnerable ecosystem

Economic incentives to simultaneously address poverty and biodiversity loss may fail if they do not align with local values or norms. Grazing livestock across the Tibetan Plateau's vast but fragile grasslands is often characterized as the area's primary driver of habitat degradation. China's grassland restoration policy provides eco-compensation subsidies for herders, with the assumption that providing extra cash income will help alleviating grazing pressure. We investigated potential impacts of this supplementary income, in combination with caterpillar fungus, a major local cash income source, on the pastoral livelihood on the Tibetan Plateau. Through field livestock census in seven communities and household livelihood interviews with 153 households we found that at both household and valley levels, eco-compensation didn't have the intended effect of reducing grazing pressure, while caterpillar fungus income has significant positive relationships on grazing intensity. Meanwhile, we found significant decrease of above-ground plant biomass after policy implementation was linked with low-elevation pastures with most intensive grazing, which indicated a negative impact of grazing on grassland condition at our study sites. Further, based on herdsmen's perceptions on different cash income sources we suspected those non-pastoral incomes might have even subsidized pastoralism. We suggested future economic incentives related to grassland restoration should be more targeted towards villages with low cash income and overgrazed grasslands, with clearly stated responsibilities and obligations, instead of standardized cash payment.

Reducing Carbon Emissions from the Tourist Accommodation Sector on Non-Interconnected Islands: A Case Study of a Medium-Sized Hotel in Rhodes, Greece

Reducing the carbon emissions from hotels on non-interconnected islands (NII) is essential in the context of a low carbon future for the Mediterranean region. Maritime tourism is the major source of income for Greece and many other countries in the region, as well as hot-temperate and tropical regions worldwide. Like many NIIs, Rhodes attracts a high influx of tourists every summer, doubling the island’s energy demand and, given the high proportion of fossil fuels in the Rhodian energy supply, increasing carbon emissions. Using the theoretical framework ‘FINE’, this paper presents the optimisation of a medium-sized hotel’s energy system with the aim of reducing both cost and carbon emissions. By introducing a Photovoltaic (PV) net metering system, it was found that the carbon emissions associated with an NII hotel’s energy system could be reduced by 31% at an optimised cost. It is suggested that large-scale deployment of PV or alternative renewable energy sources (RES) in NII hotels could significantly reduce carbon emissions associated with the accommodation sector in Greece and help mitigate climate change.

Sustainable charcoal production drive in rural communities in Ghana, West Africa

Data was gathered with semi-structured questionnaires from 492 charcoal producers in three rural communities (Adaprase, Komfourkrom, and Papaase) in the Bono East Region of Ghana. This study assesses the demographics of charcoal producers, species used for charcoal, and how producers intend to sustain the charcoal industry in terms of acquisition of wood resources/raw materials. Seven major species, namely Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree), Anogeissus leiocarpus (Kane), Pterocarpus erinaceus (Krayie), Erythrophleum ivorense (Potrodom), Afzelia africana (Papao), Parkia biglobosa (Sorono), and Daniella oliveri (Senya) were identified for charcoal production. Among these species, Shea tree was ranked first in exploitation and used by about 80% of the entire population of charcoal producers in the researched communities and puts the future of this species at risk if no intervention. Meanwhile, shea tree has been identified as a very high economic value in Ghana. In addition, people with various genders, educational backgrounds, and occupations were engaged in charcoal production, but most of them were male and between the ages of 15–47. Most charcoal producers intend to establish plantations to sustain the industry while others believe in natural regeneration of species. The charcoal industry serves as a major source of income for over 90% of the inhabitants in these communities and is it therefore not recommend-able to close the industry but incorporate interventions towards sustainability.

Forest Covers, Energy Use, and Economic Growth Nexus in the Tropics: A Case of Ethiopia

Forest is the major source of energy and income in the tropics, while economic growth affects the forest cover and energy use pattern. Although forest cover, energy use, and economic growth are the pillars of Ethiopia's climate-resilient green economy strategy, there is a limitation in empirical studies that substantiate the relationship. This paper uses Vector Auto-Regression and Auto-Regressive Distributed Lag models for the time-series data from 1990 to 2014. Besides the unit root, co-integration, and lag length tests; co-linearity, Heteroskedasticity, CUSUM, and normality were also checked. The main finding shows a direct causal relationship between energy use and forest cover, forest cover and economic growth, and energy use and economic growth. Energy use and economic growth explain 16% and 15% of the variation in forest cover, respectively. Similarly, forest cover and energy use explain 37% and 1.4% of the variation in economic growth. Moreover, forest cover and economic growth explain 29% and 23% of the variation in energy use. Though the contribution of forest cover is significant to improving energy use and economic growth, decision makers should give due emphasis to the finding.

TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN UZBEKISTAN: LEGAL BASIS

Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of the world economy. Its comprehensive development is becoming a major source of income for many countries. Therefore, many countries around the world are taking all measures to further develop this sector, to create the appropriate infrastructure at the level of world standards and to increase the flow of tourists. Uzbekistan also pays great attention to the development of the industry. This article provides detailed information on the process of reforms aimed at developing the tourism industry in the country and the legal framework adopted in this regard. The article also analyzes the stages of development of pilgrimage tourism.

Small-scale Fishermen along the Naaf River, Bangladesh in Crisis: A framework for management

Fishing is the most important traditional economic activity of the coastal communities in Bangladesh due to the availability of the diverse fishery resources. The Naaf River estuary is one of the large estuaries in Bangladesh coast, which plays a significant role in the socioeconomic condition of local community and considered as a major source of income through small-scale fishing. This paper highlights d the chronic problems and relative actions through sustainable management of small-scale fishermen of Naaf river. Community based participatory approach (PRA/RRA) was used for semi-structured questionnaire interviews of 120 small-scale fishermen from the three fishing communities soliciting information on their activities, financial flows and the main problems confronting their enterprise. Furthermore, 24 focus group discussions were arranged with different stakeholders to collect data on the organization and management of small-scale fishing as well as to get their opinions on the problems, causes and their consequences. The present study revealed that local communities in Teknaf coast are highly dependent on fisheries resources of the Naaf River. Major problems identified within the fishing community were high dependency to fishery resources, annual catch reduction, catch price fluctuation, by catch discard, lack of processing and preservation facilities, credit facilities, and training supports resulting in a disorganized fishing community with poor economic return. To ensure the sustainability, the fisheries sector need to overcome these increasing problems through management plan focusing on optimum fishery resources exploitation taking into account the top down and bottom up views of different stakeholders, “Community Based Fisheries Co-management” framework has formulated for long term sustainability and livelihood security of local community. This will go along way to help sustain the coastal fisheries resources with active participation of the fishermen.

Determinants of Sesame Market Supply in West Omo and Bench Sheko Zones, Southwest Ethiopia

Farmers depend on sesame farming as their major source of income in West Omo and Bench Sheko zones. However, they face diverse marketing challenges to deliver their product to the market. Therefore, the study aimed to investigate the variables that affect sesame market supply in West Omo and Bench Sheko zones. The study’s data were gathered from primary and secondary sources. Multistage random sampling was employed to select 270 sample sesame producers. The analysis was done using descriptive statistics as well as econometric models. Multiple regression model results showed that total livestock unit, sesame farming experience, cooperative membership, family size, land under sesame, annual off-farm income, participation in training, and distance to the nearest market significantly affected the amount of sesame supplied to the market. The study recommends strengthening sesame producer cooperative, promoting experience sharing among experienced farmers, improving transportation accessibility and infrastructure development, increasing productivity by fortifying extension service providers, and encouraging sesame producers to participate actively in various trainings.

Sources of Income Inequality among Rural Farm Households in North Western Himalayas

Study assesses the inequality arising from variations of economic opportunities across different agro-climatic zones of Himachal Pradesh. The poor in the state tends to diversify their income portfolio towards wages and salaries. Income from wages and salaries is most equally distributed, yet it contributes maximum (43.63%) in total inequality. The high Gini correlation of wages and salaries with total income (R =0.597), showing that households which are above in the total income stratum derive more income from wages and salaries activities, also k contributed its share (43.63%) in total inequality. Wages and salaries and livestock inequalities are increasing in its effect; other factors remaining constant. One per cent increase in income from wages and salaries and livestock, increased total inequality by 0.115 and 0.140 per cent. The income from agriculture and livestock tend to significantly reduce income inequality in the state. However, agriculture is the major income source across all Zones showed a wide disparity among the share of other sources in the total income. Income of households was more unevenly distributed in the Zone-II, and Gini index for the Zone-II (G =0.231) was higher than that of the Zone-IV, Zone-III and Zone-I of k the state. The result of the Theil index emphasized within group inequality was the key contributor to overall disparity across agro-climatic zones. Therefore, Policy intervention at zonal level would be imperative for correcting spatial imbalances in income distribution among agricultural households of Himachal Pradesh, and would cover the way for their comprehensive and more unbiased development.

Effects of Oilfield Chemicals, Herbicides, Pesticides and other Pollutants on Fisheries Resources in Nigeria

Crude oil exploration and exploitation is the major source of income or revenue generation for the Federal Government of Nigeria. Agriculture also forms a substantial part of the economic stability of the country. However, oil field chemicals used in crude oil exploration, herbicides and pesticides used for agricultural purposes, and other anthropogenic pollutants that are eventually released into the aquatic environment constitute serious sources of threat to the growth, survival, and productivity of fisheries resources. This review paper identified the impacts of these substances on fish, including growth inhibition, increased chromosome aberrations in cell roots, increased fungal biomass, and mortality. Recommendations arising from this review include proper disposal of oilfield chemical wastes, enhanced use of biological and mechanical pesticides/herbicides control methods as against the use of the chemicals, which helps to reduce the amount of these substances released into the aquatic environment, and direct remediation of the impacted environment. When implemented, these recommendations are expected to ultimately improve fish growth, survival, and productivity.

Monetary Policy, External Shocks and Economic Growth Dynamics in East Africa: An S-VAR Model

Resulting from the incessant political and economic uncertainty that bedevils the EAC region in the recent past, the various governments have used monetary policy changes in response to shocks from macroeconomic variables. However, the available literature shows a non-agreement by scholars as far as the dynamics in monetary policy, external shocks and macroeconomic activity connections are concerned, for both country-by-country analyses and regional assessments. This article widens the frontiers of knowledge about how the dynamics of monetary policy, external shocks and macroeconomic performance interact within the EAC economic region. We adopted the S-VAR method because of its contemporary nature as far as a transmission of monetary policy approach is concerned. The interconnectivity among the countries of EAC is an indication that any shock to the price of commodities (non-oil commodities) has significant implication on the exchange rate, which will be channelled through the supply of money and monetary policy to the GDP. The need to diversify the productive and export base of member countries, compared to the continuous dependence on one or a few products as the major source of income, is hereby advocated.