Reinforcer Magnitude Research Articles

All Behavior is choice: Revisiting an evolutionary theory's account of behavior on single schedules.

The axiomatic principle that all behavior is choice was incorporated into a revised implementation of an evolutionary theory's account of behavior on single schedules. According to this implementation, target responding occurs in the context of background responding and reinforcement. In Phase 1 of the research, the target responding of artificial organisms (AOs) animated by the revised theory was found to be well described by an exponentiated hyperbola, the parameters of which varied as a function of the background reinforcement rate. In Phase 2, the effect of reinforcer magnitude on the target behavior of the AOs was studied. As in Phase 1, the AOs' behavior was well described by an exponentiated hyperbola, the parameters of which varied with both the target reinforcer magnitude and the background reinforcement rate. Evidence from experiments with live organisms was found to be consistent with the Phase-1 predictions of the revised theory. The Phase-2 predictions have not been tested. The revised implementation of the theory can be used to study the effects of superimposing punishment on single-schedule responding, and it may lead to the discovery of a function that relates response rate to both the rate and magnitude of reinforcement on single schedules.

Behavior Momentum Theory and Humans: A Review of the Literature.

Behavioral Momentum Theory (BMT) is often described as analogous to Newton’s (1687) laws of motion. That is to say, similar to an object in motion continuing in motion unless acted upon by a force, responses occurring in a static environment will continue to occur at the same rate, unless presented with a disruptor (Nevin, Tota, Torquato, & Shull, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 359–379, 1990). When evaluating response rates through a behavioral momentum framework, responding continuing after a change in reinforcer conditions is said to persist. Previous research conducted with nonhuman animals indicates greater response persistence following conditions with either higher reinforcer rates or higher reinforcer magnitudes (Nevin, Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 21(3), 389–408, 1974; Nevin et al., Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 53, 359–379, 1990). Although BMT’s implications extend across human and nonhuman species, this literature review attempts to provide practitioners and researchers information regarding response persistence across various conditions with human participants.

Efeitos de reforçadores de magnitude aumentada e do controle aversivo na manutenção do seguimento de regras em estudantes universitários

Este estudo avaliou os efeitos da magnitude aumentada do reforço positivo (ganho de pontos) e do controle aversivo (perda de pontos) no seguimento de regras. Participaram 16 universitários expostos a uma tarefa de matching-to-sample. Os participantes, divididos em dois grupos, deveriam selecionar um de dois estímulos-comparação na presença de um estímulo contextual. No Grupo Ganho, iniciava-se a sessão com zero pontos e cada acerto produzia três pontos; no Grupo Perda, iniciava-se a sessão com 80 pontos e cada erro produzia a perda de um ponto. Foram realizadas 80 tentativas divididas em quatro blocos. Nos Blocos C1 e C2, as contingências eram correspondentes às regras; nos Blocos D1 e D2 eram discrepantes. O Grupo Perda apresentou média de acertos significativamente maior que o Grupo Ganho nos blocos discrepantes. A magnitude aumentada do reforço não se igualou aos efeitos do controle aversivo em relação ao abandono do seguimento de regras, confirmando estudos prévios.

Pigeons' midsession reversal: Greater magnitude of reinforcement on the first half of the session leads to improved accuracy.

In the midsession reversal task, pigeons are trained on a simultaneous two-alternative discrimination in which S1 is correct for the first half of the session and S2 is correct for the second half of the session. Optimally, pigeons should choose S1 until it stops being correct and choose S2 afterward. Instead, pigeons anticipate S2 too early and continue choosing S1 even after the reversal. Research suggests that they attempt to time the reversal rather than use the feedback from the preceding response(s). Recently, there is evidence that performance is almost optimized by generating an asymmetry between S1 and S2. For example, pigeons' accuracy improves if correct S1 responses are reinforced 100% of the time, but correct S2 responses are reinforced only 20% of the time. Similarly, accuracy improves if S1 requires one peck but S2 requires 10 pecks. Accuracy does not improve, however, if the value of S1 is less than the value of S2. In the current experiment, we manipulated the magnitude of reinforcement. For the experimental group, correct responses to S1 were reinforced with five pellets of food and correct responses to S2 were reinforced with one pellet. For the control group, all correct responses were reinforced with three pellets. Consistent with the earlier findings, results indicated that there was a significant reduction in anticipatory errors in the experimental group compared with the control, and there was no significant increase in perseverative errors.

Pair housing, but not using a controlled reinforcer frequency procedure, attenuates the modulatory effect of probability presentation order on amphetamine-induced changes in risky choice

Probability discounting is often measured with independent schedules. Independent schedules have several limitations, such as confounding preference for one alternative with frequency of reward presentation and generating ceiling/floor effects at certain probabilities. To address this potential caveat, a controlled reinforcer frequency schedule can be used, in which the manipulandum that leads to reinforcement is pseudo-randomly determined before each trial. This schedule ensures subjects receive equal presentations of the small and large magnitude reinforcers across each block of trials. A total of 24 pair-housed and 11 individually housed female Sprague Dawley rats were tested in a controlled reinforcer frequency procedure. For half of the rats, the odds against (OA) receiving the large magnitude reinforcer increased across the session (ascending schedule); the OA decreased across the session for half of the rats (descending schedule). Following training, rats received treatments of amphetamine (AMPH; 0, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg; s.c.). For pair-housed rats, AMPH (0.5 mg/kg) increased risky choice, regardless of probability presentation order, whereas a higher dose of AMPH (1.0 mg/kg) decreased discriminability of reinforcer magnitude for rats trained on the descending schedule only. For individually housed rats, probability presentation order modulated the effects of AMPH on probability discounting, as AMPH (0.25 and 0.5 mg/kg) increased risky choice in rats trained on the ascending schedule but not on the descending schedule. These results show that pair-housing animals, but not using a controlled reinforcer frequency procedure, attenuates the modulatory effects of probability presentation order on drug effects on risky choice.

On the discounting of cannabis and money: Sensitivity to magnitude vs. delay

BackgroundWhile using most drugs of abuse is associated with higher than control rates of delay discounting, cannabis use may be the exception. As such, between-commodity differences in delay discounting (i.e., money vs. cannabis) have not been thoroughly examined. We examined these between-commodity differences using modern analytic techniques to disentangle effects of subjects’ sensitivity to magnitude and delay as potential drivers of any obtained delay discounting rate differences. Method; Fifty-eight college students (n = 33 cannabis users, n = 25 non-users) completed a monetary delay discounting task – with the cannabis users completing the cannabis problems questionnaire as well a delay discounting of cannabis task- in an on-campus laboratory. ResultsResponding between groups differed on the cannabis problems questionnaire, but not on delay discounting of monetary outcomes. Cannabis users, however, discounted cannabis at higher rates than money. Multilevel logistic regression revealed that these between-commodity delay discounting differences were due to subjects’ differential sensitivity to the magnitude of these two commodities, rather than sensitivity to delay to receiving these commodities. ConclusionsAlthough differences in delay discounting rate were not obtained between students that did and did not use cannabis, cannabis users did discount cannabis at higher rates than they did money - suggesting considerable generality of the between commodity differences in delay discounting obtained elsewhere. The current between-commodity delay discounting differences appear to be driven by differential sensitivity to the reinforcer magnitudes presented in each task – a finding that awaits replication across other comparisons before statements about generality can be made.

Effects of oxycodone on sensitivity to reinforcement magnitude: implications for effects of opioids on impulsive and risky choice.

Opioid addiction/dependence is associated with impulsive and risky behavior. Moreover, opioids can increase impulsive choice in preclinical studies with nonhumans. The objective of this study was to investigate a potential behavioral mechanism of opioids: a change in the impact of reinforcement magnitude on choice. Rats (n = 7) chose between smaller and larger reinforcers under a continuous-choice (concurrent-chains) procedure. The levers associated with the smaller and larger reinforcers alternated every five sessions. During baseline under this procedure, rats showed a reliable preference for the larger reinforcer. Effects of several doses (0.1-1.7 mg/kg, s.c.) of the prescription opioid, oxycodone, were examined on preference based upon reinforcement magnitude. Oxycodone dose-dependently decreased preference for the larger reinforcer (i.e. decreased sensitivity to reinforcement magnitude). The decrease in sensitivity to reinforcement magnitude was selective in that the intermediate doses did not affect, or had minimal impact on, other measures of performance (e.g. on general motivation to respond). These data suggest that a decrease in the sensitivity to reinforcement magnitude is a reliable outcome of μ-opioid administration, an effect that has important implications for the impact of these drugs on both impulsive and risky behavior.

Factors controlling the micro-structure of human free-operant behaviour: Bout-initiation and within-bout responses are effected by different aspects of the schedule

Two experiments examined factors controlling human free-operant performance in relation to predictions based on the nature of bout-initiation and within-bout responding. Overall, responding was higher for a random ratio (RR) than a random interval (RI) schedule, with equal rates of reinforcement. Bout-initiation rates were not different across the two schedules, but within-bout rates were higher on the RR schedule. Response cost reduced overall rates of responding, but tended to suppress bout-initiation responding more than within-bout responding (Experiments 1 & 2). In contrast, reinforcement magnitude increased all forms of responding (Experiment 2). One explanation consistent with these effects is that bout-initiation responses are controlled by overall rates of reinforcement through their impact on the context (i.e. are stimulus-driven), but that within-bout responses are controlled by response reinforcement (i.e. are goal-directed). These current findings are discussed in the light of these theoretical suggestions.

Pigeons can learn a difficult discrimination if reinforcement is delayed following choice.

Delaying reinforcement typically has been thought to retard the rate of acquisition of an association, but there is evidence that it may facilitate acquisition of some difficult simultaneous discriminations. After describing several cases in which delaying reinforcement can facilitate acquisition, we suggest that under conditions in which the magnitude of reinforcement is difficult to discriminate, the introduction of a delay between choice and reinforcement can facilitate the discrimination. In the present experiment, we tested the hypothesis that the discrimination between one pellet of food for choice of one alternative and two pellets of food for choice of another may be a difficult discrimination when choice consists of a single peck. If a 10-s delay occurs between choice and reinforcement, however, the discrimination is significantly easier. It is suggested that when discrimination between the outcomes of a choice is difficult and impulsive choice leads to immediate reinforcement, acquisition may be retarded. Under these conditions, the introduction of a brief delay may facilitate acquisition.

Negative reinforcer magnitude manipulations for treating escape-maintained problem behavior.

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the effects of different magnitudes of escape for compliance relative to the magnitudes of escape for problem behavior in a concurrent-schedule arrangement. Three individuals who exhibited escape-maintained problem behavior participated. A large differential magnitude condition (240-s escape for compliance, 10-s escape for problem behavior) was compared to equal (30-s escape for compliance and problem behavior) and moderate differential magnitude (90-s escape for compliance, 10-s escape for problem behavior) conditions. The authors also evaluated the impact of correcting for reinforcer access time (i.e., time on escape intervals) on intervention interpretation. For all participants, problem behavior decreased during only the large differential magnitude condition, and including reinforcer access time in the overall session time did not affect interpretation of treatment outcomes. Providing larger escape magnitudes for compliance relative to problem behavior may facilitate treatment involving concurrent-reinforcement schedules for escape-maintained problem behavior.

Examining implementation of contingency management in real-world settings.

Very little is known about how reward programs are implemented in real-world substance use treatment settings and whether training in contingency management (CM), an empirically supported rewards-based intervention, impacts their design quality. Providers (N = 214) completed surveys assessing CM beliefs, training, and practices related to use of tangible rewards in treatment. For providers reporting they had not used rewards in treatment previously (54%, n = 116), we assessed beliefs about and interest in adopting a reward-based program. For those endorsing prior reward experience (46%, n = 98), we assessed the features and delivery of rewards and the relation of reward-based intervention training to 4 parameters related to CM efficacy: reinforcement magnitude, immediacy, frequency, and escalation. Among providers without reward experience, endorsement of supportive statements about CM predicted interest in adopting a rewards-based program. Providers with reward experience most often targeted treatment attendance and engaged in behaviors likely to decrease the effectiveness of the intervention, including use of low magnitudes (≤ $25/client), delayed reinforcement, failure to escalate reward values, and offering reward opportunities less than weekly. Providers with longer durations of training were more likely to engage in behaviors consistent with effective CM, including larger magnitude rewards and immediate delivery of rewards. Results indicate that real-world treatment clinics are using reward-based programs but not in ways consistent with research protocols. Longer training exposure is associated with greater adherence to some aspects of CM protocol design. Other evidence-based design features are not being implemented as recommended, even with training. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Interlaminar to intralaminar mode I and II crack bifurcation due to aligned carbon nanotube reinforcement of aerospace-grade advanced composites

Aerospace-grade unidirectional carbon microfiber reinforced epoxy prepreg composite laminates were reinforced in the relatively weak interlaminar regions with high densities (>10 billion nanofibers per cm2) of uniformly-distributed vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (A-CNTs), creating a hierarchical architecture termed “nanostitch”. Such nanostitched laminates have been shown to increase laminate in-plane and interlaminar shear strengths. Here, the Mode I and Mode II fracture behavior and associated toughening mechanisms are investigated experimentally by performing double cantilever beam and end-notched flexure tests, respectively, of unidirectional 0° laminates following the ASTM Standards. Investigation of the crack surfaces via microscopy and micro-computed tomography (μCT) show that in both Mode I and II, the interlaminar crack bifurcates into the intralaminar region from the interlaminar precrack, and then propagates within the intralaminar region parallel to the nanostitched interlaminar region as an “intralaminar delamination” in steady state. This before unobserved phenomenon is attributed to the A-CNTs adding interlaminar toughness to a level that causes the interlaminar crack to bifurcate into the less tough intralaminar region. Microscopy and μCT analyses reveal that the A-CNTs do not increase the interlaminar thickness, and drive the crack into the intralaminar region within 1–2 mm of crack initiation in both Mode I and II, with the distance of the “intralaminar delamination” crack from the interlaminar region (at the laminate centerline) being greater in Mode II than in Mode I (~30 μm vs. ~15 μm, respectively). Finite element simulation of the crack bifurcation in Mode I predicts a minimum of 10% increase in interlaminar toughness due to the A-CNTs to propagate the crack in the intralaminar region in steady state, as observed experimentally. This unique crack behavior in advanced composites provides new insights into the magnitude and effects of reinforcement induced by A-CNTs that influence the macroscopic fracture and failure behavior of laminates, and suggests new opportunities for toughening laminates.

Experimental manipulations of behavioral economic demand for addictive commodities: a meta-analysis.

Reinforcing value, an index of motivation for a drug, is commonly measured using behavioral economic purchase tasks. State-oriented purchase tasks are sensitive to phasic manipulations, but with heterogeneous methods and findings. The aim of this meta-analysis was to characterize the literature examining manipulations of reinforcing value, as measured by purchase tasks and multiple-choice procedures, to inform etiological models and treatment approaches METHODS: A random-effects meta-analysis of published findings in peer-reviewed articles. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) protocol, studies were gathered through searches in PsycINFO and PubMed/MEDLINE (published 22May 2018). Searches returned 34 unique studies (aggregate sample n=2402; average sample size=68.94) yielding 126 effect sizes. Measurements included change (i.e. Cohen's d) in six behavioral economic indices (intensity, breakpoint, Omax , Pmax , elasticity, cross-over point) in relation to six experimental manipulations (cue exposure, stress/negative affect, reinforcer magnitude, pharmacotherapy, behavioral interventions, opportunity cost). Cue exposure (d range=0.25-0.44, all Ps<0.05) and reinforcer magnitude [d=0.60; 95% confidence interval (CI)=0.18, 1.01; P<0.005] manipulations resulted in significant increases in behavioral economic demand across studies. Stress/negative affect manipulations also resulted in a small, significant increase in Omax (d=0.18; 95% CI=0.01, 0.34; P=0.03); all other effect sizes for negative affect/stress were non-significant, albeit similar in size (d range=0.14-0.18). In contrast, pharmacotherapy (d range=-0.37 to -0.49; Ps<0.04), behavioral intervention (d=-0.36 to -1.13) and external contingency (d=-1.42; CI=-2.30, -0.54; P=0.002) manipulations resulted in a significant decrease in intensity. Moderators (substance type) explained some of the heterogeneity in findings across meta-analyses. In behavioral economic studies, purchase tasks and multiple-choice procedures appear to provide indices that are sensitive to manipulations found to influence motivation to consume addictive substances in field experiments.

TRANSITIONS FROM RICH-TO-LEAN SCHEDULES INCREASE ATTACK IN A LABORATORY MODEL OF SOCIAL AGGRESSION IN PIGEONS: II. FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULES.

Pigeons key pecked under two-component multiple fixed-interval (FI) schedules. Each component provided a different reinforcer magnitude (small or large), signaled by the color of the key light. Attacks toward a live, protected target pigeon were measured. Large- (rich) and small- (lean) reinforcer components alternated irregularly such that four different interval types (transitions) between the size of the immediately preceding reinforcer and the size of the upcoming reinforcer occurred within each session: lean-to-lean, lean-to-rich, rich-to-lean, and rich-torich transitions. The FI for each component was the same within each phase, but was manipulated across phases. For all pigeons, more attack occurred following the presentations of the larger reinforcer (i.e., during rich-to-lean and rich-to-rich transitions). For 2 of the 3 pigeons, this effect was modulated by the size of the upcoming reinforcer; attack following larger reinforcers was elevated when the upcoming reinforcer was small (i.e., during rich-to-lean transitions). This rich-to-lean effect on attack diminished or disappeared as the length of the FI schedule was increased (i.e., control over attack by the upcoming reinforcer size diminished with increases in the inter-reinforcement interval). For all pigeons and at all FIs, however, postreinforcement pauses were longest during the rich-to-lean transitions. These data (1) are consistent with the notion that postreinforcement periods during intermittent schedules function aversively and, thus, can precipitate aggressive behavior, and (2) suggest that rich-to-lean conditions may be especially aversive. They also indicate, however, that aversive effects of rich-to-lean transitions may differ across fixed-ratio (FR) and FI schedules, and that variables controlling attacking and pausing may not be isomorphic between these different schedule types.

TRANSITIONS FROM RICH-TO-LEAN SCHEDULES INCREASE ATTACK IN A LABORATORY MODEL OF SOCIAL AGGRESSION IN PIGEONS: I. FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULES

Two pigeons key pecked under a two-component multiple fixed-ratio (FR) FR schedule. Each component provided a different reinforcer magnitude (small or large) thatwhich was signaled by the color of the key light. Large- (rich) and small- (lean) reinforcer components randomly alternated to produce four different types of transitions between the size of the immediately preceding reinforcer and the size of the upcoming reinforcer: lean-to-lean, lean-to-rich, rich-to-lean, and rich-to-rich. During probe sessions, a mirror (which was covered during baseline sessions) was uncovered and attack responses toward the mirror were measured, along with the force of individual mirror attacks. The pigeons paused the longest, and attacked most frequently during the rich-to-lean transitions. The pigeons also exhibited some attacksh during lean-to-lean transitions, and pauses were longer during these transitions than during the lean-to-rich and rich-to-rich transitions. Pauses were short and attack infrequent during these last two transition types. In addition, attacks were more forceful during the rich-to-lean transitions thaen during the other transition types. These data are consistent with the view that rich-to-lean transitions function aversively and, as such, generate behavior patterns, including aggression, commonly produced by other aversive stimuli.

Effects of negative incentive shifts in food reward on rats' consumption of concurrent ethanol solutions.

Frustration stress, typically operationalized as the unexpected loss of reinforcement, has been shown to engender substance use. Abrupt reductions in reinforcer magnitude likely also function as frustration stressors. These negative incentive shifts were previously shown to produce tap- and sweetened-water drinking in rats. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether these shifts in food reward would occasion oral ethanol self-administration. Nine male Long-Evans rats operated on a two-component multiple fixed-ratio schedule with signaled components producing either a large (4 pellets) or small (1pellet) reinforcer. Components were pseudorandomly arranged to present 4 transitions between past and upcoming reinforcer magnitudes: small-to-large, small-to-small, large-to-large, and large-to-small (negative incentive shift). Experiment 1 investigated the effects of negative incentive shifts on consumption of concurrent, freely available 10% sucrose, 10% sucrose plus 10% ethanol, and following sucrose fading, 10% ethanol. Experiment 2 entailed continuation of schedule contingencies with a dose manipulation of 4 ethanol concentrations (0, 5, 10, and 20%) to assess dose-dependent differences in transition-type control and consumption. A lever-press extinction condition was then conducted with 10% ethanol availability. In this novel model of frustration stress, negative incentive shifts prompted ethanol self-administration at each dose investigated, whereas the other transitions did not.

Further investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction for escape-maintained destructive behavior.

Previous research indicates that manipulating dimensions of reinforcement during differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) for situations in which extinction cannot be implemented is a potential approach for treating destructive behavior. Therefore, we replicated and extended previous research by determining (a) the conditions under which DRA without extinction decreased and maintained low levels of destructive behavior and (b) whether intervention effects maintained during reinforcement schedule thinning for the alternative response (i.e., compliance). Results showed that effective treatments were developed in the absence of extinction by manipulating the quality of reinforcement for compliance for 2 participants and by combining manipulations of the magnitude and quality of reinforcement for compliance for the other 2 participants. However, maintaining treatment effects during reinforcement schedule thinning required combining the magnitude and quality of reinforcement for 3 of the 4 participants. We discuss the clinical utility of this approach, review limitations of the study, and suggest directions for future research.

Soil Stabilization For Pavements Using Geofabrics Based On California Bearing Ratio

India has the largest road network however the prevailing roads ar structurally inadequate to accommodate the current volume of traffic. Use of geosynthetics is compatible and conjointly effective within the method of up soil properties. the current study conducts experiment on the performance of geotextile (woven and non-woven) as soft subgrade and unbound gravel in unpaved versatile pavement system victimization CA Bearing magnitude relation (CBR) take a look at. Reinforcement magnitude relation comparison of woven and non-woven geotextile reinforcenment supported CMB load penetration take a look at indicates that the performance is improved with the inclusion of geotextile.

Aspectos Históricos, Teóricos e Metodológicos da Teoria do Momentum Comportamental

&#x0D; A Teoria do Momentum Comportamental (TMC) foi proposta para sistematizar os dados de pesquisas sobre resistência do comportamento à mudança, definindo-a como a tendência de um comportamento continuar ocorrendo quando se altera o ambiente no qual ele está sendo mantido. O presente artigo discorre acerca dos aspectos históricos, teóricos e metodológicos sobre a resistência do comportamento à mudança de acordo com o quadro conceitual da TMC e apresenta algumas das implicações dessa área de pesquisa para a Análise do Comportamento Aplicada. Observa-se que a resistência comportamental é um fenômeno complexo que pode ser afetado por diversas variáveis, tais como a taxa ou a magnitude dos reforços, diferentes exigências sobre a taxa de respostas e pelo atraso dos reforços. Tais resultados promoveram o desenvolvimento e refinamento de protocolos de intervenção, principalmente no trabalho com indivíduos com desenvolvimento atípico. A continuidade da pesquisa nessa área fornecerá maior e melhor conhecimento sobre o comportamento dos organismos, bases para revisões teóricas sobre os determinantes da resistência do comportamento à mudança bem como promoverá o desenvolvimento de intervenções comportamentais mais efetivas.

The Utility of Operant Conditioning to Address Poverty and Drug Addiction.

Poverty is associated with poor health. This article reviews research on proximal and distal operant interventions to address drug addiction and poverty. Proximal interventions promote health behaviors directly. Abstinence reinforcement, a common proximal intervention for the treatment of drug addiction, can be effective. Manipulating familiar parameters of operant conditioning can improve the effectiveness of abstinence reinforcement. Increasing reinforcement magnitude can increase the proportion of individuals that respond to abstinence reinforcement, arranging long-term exposure to abstinence reinforcement can prevent relapse, and arranging abstinence reinforcement sequentially across drugs can promote abstinence from multiple drugs. Distal interventions reduce risk factors that underlie poor health and may have an indirect beneficial effect on health. In the case of poverty, distal interventions seek to move people out of poverty. The therapeutic workplace includes both proximal and distal interventions to treat drug addiction and poverty. In the therapeutic workplace, participants earn stipends or wages to work. The therapeutic workplace uses employment-based reinforcement in which participants are required to provide drug-free urine samples or take scheduled doses of addiction medications to work and/or maintain maximum pay. The therapeutic workplace has two phases, a training and an employment phase. Special contingencies appear required to promote skill development during the training phase, employment-based reinforcement can promote abstinence from heroin and cocaine and adherence to naltrexone, and the therapeutic workplace can increase employment. Behavior analysts are well-suited to address both poverty and drug addiction using operant interventions like the therapeutic workplace.