Bhimband, located in Bihar in eastern India hosts a well-known geothermal system that appears to be strongly influenced by fault-controlled circulation, and the surface springs there routinely reach temperatures of about 60-65 °C. In this research, the geothermal environment was analyzed using a combination of geological observations and a number of geophysical surveys, including gravity, magnetic, and electrical resistivity surveys to gain a better understanding of the subsurface environment and heat flow characteristics. Using these data, a probabilistic volumetric assessment was carried out through Monte Carlo simulations and the results indicate that the region may store on the order of ∼6.50 × 10 14 J of thermal energy out of which roughly ∼9.76 × 10 13 J could realistically be recovered. Based on these findings, a preliminary field development strategy was outlined for a small-scale binary power plant (∼3.1 MW) operating on an Organic Rankine Cycle and designed for a 20-year life. The plan suggests a phased drilling program of 24 wells which includes exploration, appraisal, production and reinjection wells, arranged in a manner that would allow long-term and balanced extraction of heat. The revised economic analysis estimates a CAPEX of ₹86.5 crore and OPEX of ₹45 crore over 20 years, resulting in a simple payback period of ∼20 years and an IRR of ∼8%, reflecting the high upfront investment and modest project scale. The environmental factors were incorporated into the design with a focus on reinjecting the cooled fluid to maintain the reservoir pressure and minimize surface emissions. On the whole, the assessment tends towards the technical feasibility of geothermal power production at Bhimband and provides a useful initial framework for sustainable geothermal development in India, in the wake of the country's increasing interest in clean energy alternative. • This study presents a comprehensive geothermal resource assessment by integrating detailed geological investigations with geophysical surveys (gravity, magnetic, and electrical resistivity) to characterize subsurface conditions and evaluate the geothermal potential of the study area. • The interpreted geophysical and geological data were further utilized in a probabilistic volumetric resource estimation using Monte Carlo simulation, which indicates a total stored thermal energy of approximately 2.7 × 10 14 J, with about 4 × 10 13 J estimated as technically recoverable. • Based on the estimated resource potential, a 1.3 MW binary Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) power plant is proposed as part of a conceptual Field Development Plan (FDP). • Preliminary economic modelling estimates a capital expenditure (CAPEX) of around ₹83 crore and an operating expenditure (OPEX) of approximately ₹45 crore .

The study of the magnetic anomaly variation A and its relationship with iron ores

This study delineates groundwater potential zones along the contact between the Tiruchirappalli Cretaceous formations and the Archaean crystalline basement using ground magnetic surveys. Magnetic susceptibility data were collected with a Proton Precession Magnetometer along six NW–SE profiles at 1 km station spacing and 5 km profile intervals, covering key locations in Perambalur district, Tamil Nadu. A total of 60 measurements were obtained, with magnetic intensity values ranging from 967 to 7 gammas and averaging 297 gammas. Higher values were recorded in crystalline rocks (967–300 gammas) and lower values in sedimentary rocks (300–7 gammas), enabling the delineation of the basement–sedimentary litho contacts. Data processing in Geosoft and ArcGIS produced total magnetic intensity, reduction-to-pole, directional filter, regional, and residual maps, which highlighted lithological contacts and fracture systems. NE–SW fractures correspond to lithological contacts, while NW–SE fractures represent neo-tectonic structural elements. Groundwater potential zones were identified using rank and weightage method which shows that the possible potential zones are along the litho contact and the intersection of NW-SE fractures with litho contacts. The findings confirm that magnetic surveys are an effective tool for locating groundwater-bearing structures in basement–sedimentary terrains.

Undocumented orphan wells present challenges for subsurface characterization and environmental management due to their unknown locations and varied physical conditions. Magnetic surveys offer a promising pathway for identifying these wells by detecting the magnetic anomalies associated with steel casings. However, magnetometer data are typically high-volume, noisy, and complex, making them difficult to process efficiently with conventional methods. Existing processing methods require heavy preprocessing and achieve unsatisfactory recall scores. In this study, we propose a transformer-based deep learning framework designed to efficiently process hyper-resolute data without extensive downsampling. This is achieved through novel on-the-fly techniques as well as the use of sinusoidal positional encoders to allow the model relative positional awareness. Tests on purely synthetic data show that our model achieves F1-scores of over 90% for line spacings between successive flight paths up to 140 m, enabling surveys to take much sparser flight paths, resulting in more efficient coverage. When applied to real-life data, our model achieves a recall of 70%. This flexible and scalable framework enables the detection of orphan wells from drone data and can be readily adapted to other remote sensing applications.

ABSTRACT The Jiamusi Block in Northeast Asia provides a critical window for investigating the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Western Pacific Orogenic Belt during the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. To constrain the structure and evolution of the lithosphere–asthenosphere system, this study integrates regional gravity and magnetic surveys with two NW–SE‐trending magnetotelluric (MT) profiles of lengths 250 and 150 km across the block. Two‐dimensional nonlinear conjugate gradient inversion derived the electrical structure to a depth of 200 km. The inversion models reveal distinct crustal and mantle low‐resistivity bodies (labelled C1–C8) that spatially correlate with abrupt positive gravity and aeromagnetic anomalies. These low‐resistivity features are interpreted as signatures of mantle‐derived fluids and partial melts, indicative of asthenospheric upwelling and lithospheric thinning. We attribute these processes to the westward subduction of the Pacific Plate, which induced significant crust–mantle interaction and fluid metasomatism. Furthermore, a comparative analysis reveals that the lithospheric thickness of the Jiamusi Block (70–95 km) is intermediate between that of the Songnen Block (65–80 km) and the Xing'an Block (100–120 km). This variation suggests that lithospheric thickness in the region is primarily controlled by the geometry of the subducting slab's mantle wedge and the intensity of the associated fluid metasomatism.

As part of a new research project at the famous site in Bronocice, Pińczów County (SE Poland), preliminary work, including magnetic prospecting, was conducted in 2020. This provided a new understanding of the Eneolithic settlement, significantly enhancing the data from excavations in the 1970s. The magnetic survey covered an area of over 50ha, enabling the identification of all three main zones of the site. The layout of ditches associated with defensive structures from various phases of the Eneolithic period was documented. Other settlement remains were also clearly visible, particularly the utility settlement pits.

ABSTRACT The study aims to delineate the small intrusive bodies, intrusive zones, shear related sympathetic structures and add inputs in tectonic history at the contact zone of tectonically contrasting geological terranes, i.e., the Nallamallai group of Cuddapah Basin (CB), Nellore Schist Belt (NSB) and Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB), which are not evident in earlier regional scale studies. Detailed gravity, total field magnetic and radiometric surveys at station spacing of 500 m were collected over 700 km 2 area with 1486 stations. The Bouguer gravity anomaly and total‐field magnetic anomaly map intuitively delimits the contacts between these three geological terranes. Bouguer gravity anomaly reveal NE–SW trending weak zones that host low‐density granitic intrusions and denser gabbroic–dolomitic bodies, while total field magnetic data clearly delineate the CB–NSB–EGMB boundaries, major shear zones and localized high‐susceptibility BIF and mafic intrusive bodies in the studied area. Residual Bouguer gravity anomaly, radiometric total‐count and ternary data delineate younger granites, nepheline syenites, their subsurface extensions and uranium‐rich zones in the Vellikonda Shear Zone (VSZ). The results reveal that the VSZ and sympathetic structures in the EGMB extend from 0.5 to 3 km with eastward‐dipping geometries, consistent with oblique thrust and transpressional tectonics. Granitic intrusions occur at depths of 2 to 5 km, while relict NSB patches are observed at 1 to 3 km. Shallow intrusive roots along the VSZ range from 0.5 to 1 km, with maximum crustal involvement reaching approximately 5.13 km, highlighting emplacement along pre‐existing structural weaknesses and progressive shearing and faulting. Joint 2D gravity‐magnetic modelling and 3D density inversion are employed to delineate the subsurface geometry of intrusive bodies and the depth‐dependent dip variations of major shear zones across the EGMB. The conceptual geological model provides a detailed tectonic perspective, emphasizing the imprint of younger tectono‐thermal events on the pre‐existing crustal architecture. The findings suggest that low‐density intrusions are emplaced along shear‐related sympathetic structures, serving as pathways for both younger felsic plutons and mineral‐enriched hydrothermal fluids within a complex tectonic architecture of continental collision and accretion.

A comparison was made of the results of ground-based magnetic surveys and unmanned aerial vehicle surveys performed in 2020 and 2021 at the Chulbatkan gold deposit in the Khabarovsk region and its surrounding area. The analyses of the correlation between the total magnetic field induction vector and its local anomalies obtained from the two types of surveys in overlapping areas demonstrate their high consistency. The proportion of anomalies not detected by the aerial magnetic survey was evaluated. The influence of magnetic field smoothing at altitude on the results of its interpretation was analyzed in comparison with ground-based surveys. The experience of compiling a composite magnetic map based on both types of magnetic surveys for the Chulbatkan deposit area was examined. Methodological conclusions were drawn regarding the effectiveness of low-altitude surveys for various geological settings, considering the magnetic properties of the rocks, and the role of such surveys within the overall exploration complex was demonstrated.

This study combines airborne magnetic and magnetotelluric (MT) surveys to enhance deep subsurface geologic characterization and groundwater prospecting in the Voltaian Sedimentary Basin (VSB) in Ghana. A comprehensive analysis of airborne magnetic data delineated potential subsurface lineaments, which subsequently informed the selection of sites for magnetotelluric (MT) field investigations. Resistivity maps derived from both 3D depth slices and 1D inversions of the magnetotelluric profiles, and jointly interpreted with lineaments from airborne magnetic, defined a deep zone of low resistivity formation indicating a probable groundwater-bearing zone. The resistivity signature of the structure is comparable to that of a unit in which a 132 l/min-yielding research borehole in close proximity is completed. This promising conductive layer is approximately 30 m thick at a depth of 260 m below ground level and is about 45 km long. This has presented new insights into the stratigraphic thickness of the two regionally significant geological formations: the Panabako and Poubogou Formations. The new data suggest thicker units than are currently known in the current literature. This finding is significant and will affect the current understanding of the geology and groundwater resource productivity of the Voltaian Basin.

Abstract In recent years, new geothermal anomalies have been detected on the northwestern slope of the 62-II crater near the summit of Tokachidake Volcano, Hokkaido, Japan. These surface manifestations imply the formation of new shallow subsurface pathways for hydrothermal fluids, accompanied by localized heating and progressive hydrothermal alteration along these pathways. Because hydrothermal alteration can weaken volcanic rocks and contribute to sector collapse, identifying the distribution of alteration and the associated temperature changes within the edifice is crucial for assessing potential collapse hazards. This study aimed to visualize the shallow thermal activity beneath Tokachidake Volcano using drone-borne magnetic surveys. Magnetic surveying provides insight into subsurface temperature changes and the extent of hydrothermal alteration. In particular, aeromagnetic surveys enable the efficient investigation of shallow volcanic thermal activity without terrain-related access limitations. We conducted drone-borne magnetic surveys in 2023, 2024, and 2025 to acquire geomagnetic field data around the geothermal anomalies at a constant clearance above the ground surface. From these datasets, we derived static magnetic anomalies that reflect the effects of topographic relief and subsurface heterogeneity, as well as their temporal differences. Three-dimensional inversion was then applied to estimate the distribution of subsurface magnetization intensity and its temporal variations. Static magnetization models revealed a columnar low-magnetization zone directly beneath the 62-II crater, representing the heated and hydrothermally altered regions surrounding the fumarolic conduit. Temporal magnetization variations revealed a remagnetized zone beneath the 62-II crater and a demagnetized zone beneath the geothermal anomalies, indicating the reorganization of shallow heat transfer associated with the development of new hydrothermal fluid pathways. The demagnetized zone beneath the Maetokachi slope suggests the presence of hydrothermal fluid pathways within the slope interior, where progressive alteration likely weakens the volcanic rocks and reduces slope stability. These findings provide new insights into the evolution of the shallow hydrothermal system of Tokachidake Volcano. The active redistribution of heat and fluids within the edifice appears to contribute to the internal weakening of the Maetokachi slope, potentially increasing the likelihood of future sector collapse. Continued aeromagnetic monitoring combined with hydrothermal and slope-stability modeling will be essential for effective hazard assessment. Graphical Abstract

Development of quantitative geophysical proxy indicators for urban underground space use: An analysis of Stockholm and its city plan

In the arid Red Sea margin setting, episodic Wadi runoff is a primary mechanism for groundwater recharge; its effectiveness depends on surface morphology, structural fabric, and subsurface architecture. This study assessed groundwater potential and recharge dynamics in Wadi Ramliya, Wadi Umm Alda, and Wadi Hamad in Northeastern Egypt by integrating morphometric, geophysical, hydrochemical, and meteorological datasets to prioritize sites for managed aquifer recharge and reconnaissance drilling. High-resolution Digital Elevation models (DEMs) and multi-azimuth hillshades were used to map topographic zoning and structural trends, while morphometric analysis quantified drainage metrics. Flood-event hazard mapping was developed by integrating the Suez rain gauge station as a reference, satellite-based rainfall from the CHIRPS dataset, and data on DEM, slope, drainage density, land-use/land-cover, and road distance. Twenty-eight Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) were used to constrain a six-layer geoelectric model, and Archie-based transforms (ρw = 2.85 Ω.m) were applied to the estimated formation factors and porosities. Water quality was classified using hydrochemical data from the JICA-5 borehole, while land magnetic surveys, utilizing Total magnetic intensity (TMI), Reduced to the Pole (RTP), and analytic signal filters, delineated basement structural highs and depocenters to guide structural targeting. DEM/hillshade analysis delineated four topographic zones (17.5-1,292m) and showed dominant NW-SE and NE-SW trends that control drainage orientation. Morphometric indices highlight contrasting basin behavior; Wadi Hamad (A = 46.8km²) exhibits the highest drainage density (Dd = 1.79km km⁻²), relief ratio (Rr=31.3), and bifurcation ratio (Rb=3.0), consistent with steep, structurally guided, flash-prone headwaters. By contrast, Wadi Ramliya (A = 452.6km²) and Wadi Umm Alda (A = 377.4km²) act primarily as transit and depositional basins. The VES interpretation yielded three principal curve types (QH, HK, and QQ), with QH dominating the dataset. It resolves a hydraulically significant Middle Miocene calcareous-sandstone aquifer at 77-122m (with resistivity of 12-23 Ω.m). Archie-derived formation factors (F = 4.2-8.2) imply porosities of 35-49% (mean ≈ 40.6%); resistivity-based saturation remained low (illustrative Sw= 5.6%). JICA-5 chemistry classified the deeper layer (layer-6) as slightly brackish (TDS = 2,447mg L⁻¹). Magnetic depth estimates and analytic-signal mapping identified shallow structural highs and deeper depocenters that correlated with depositional fans and VES targets. Flood-hazard mapping identified low-slope fan toes and coastal plain cells as high-priority recharge locations, which coincide with favorable geophysical signatures. Integrated data indicate that managed recharge pilots at alluvial fan toes and targeted reconnaissance drilling at lineament intersections are the highest-priority field actions; these should be accompanied by downhole logging, pumping tests, water-quality monitoring, and sediment control measures.

This paper presents the results of the pilot airborne electromagnetic (AEM) and magnetic survey conducted over a sector of Great Salt Lake (GSL), Utah, aimed at investigating the potential presence of a large freshwater reservoir beneath the lake —the largest inland saline water body in the Western Hemisphere. A 3D inversion of AEM data reveals a laterally extensive resistive layer underlying the lake’s highly conductive brine. This resistive unit is interpreted as freshwater-saturated sediments or bedrock. Its identification provides evidence for substantial freshwater resources beneath the hypersaline layer. The presence of freshwater-saturated sediments beneath the saline water layer has been independently verified by direct measurements of water salinity and chemistry from cores collected in the wells. It has been demonstrated that the AEM method can overcome the challenge of imaging through a hypersaline surface layer to map deeper freshwater. Complementing the AEM data, the magnetic data and their inversion into remanent magnetization provided valuable insights into deeper basement structures. Based on the results of the pilot project, we anticipate that airborne geophysics will enable basin-scale surveys beneath the expansive (> 4,000 km2) footprint of the Great Salt Lake, as well as surveys of other terminal lakes and offshore freshened groundwater.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-026-40995-5.

Research subject. Deep structure of the earth's consolidated crust of the paleorift system of the White Sea and the Mezen syneclise. Materials and methods. Two-dimensional seismic density models of the earth's crust structure were constructed on the basis of the 3-AP (Kem–White Sea–peninsula Kanin), Agat-2, Agat-3, and Quartz 2 reference seismic profiles. The state of the deep layers of the earth's crust was interpreted using the distribution of the effective density of the substrate and a model of distribution of magnetic anomalies sources. The latter model was constructed using the technique of two-dimensional inversion of an anomalous magnetic field. The magnetic field was analyzed based on a schematic map of magnetic field anomalies (AMP), synthesized by the authors based on the materials of magnetic surveys carried out in the waters of the Barents and White Seas at different time points and provided for their further interpretation. The main objective of constructing geological and geophysical models of the deep structure of the earth's consolidated crust of the White Sea paleorift system and the Mezen syneclise was to establish genetic relationships between near-surface geological structures and deep elements of the earth's crust structure. Results. The conducted analysis of the abovementioned materials, taking into account the data on the near-surface structure of the earth's crust, allowed geological and geophysical models of the earth's crust to be constructed to the crust-mantle level along four reference seismic profiles – 3-AP, Agat-2, Agat-3, and Quartz-2 – crossing the structure of the Mezen syneclise in different directions. In addition, in the eastern part of the Mezen syneclise, a series of magnetic profiles is presented, demonstrating the confinement of the AMF sources to two hypsometric levels in the territory where the Late Paleozoic Mezen trap-dyke field, located in the sedimentary cover, was previously described. Conclusions. Joint interpretation of seismic density models and those of distribution of magnetic anomaly sources made it possible to establish connections between physical parameters of models and geological structures or bodies and to create generalized geological and geophysical models of the studied areas of the earth's crust. According to the constructed 2D models of the deep structure of the earth's crust of the Mezen syneclise, the earth's crust has a complex and heterogeneous structure. The complex mosaic picture presented in the obtained models reflects the layered-block structure of the lithosphere. The block structure of the Mezen syneclise basement is mainly formed by riftogenic faults that limit grabens and horsts of the paleorift system of the White Sea and separate blocks with different density properties. The main structure-forming faults are listric in nature and flatten out toward the base of the upper or middle crust, acquiring detachment properties at depth. A certain correlation of the Moho surface relief with the structures of the surface layer of the earth's crust is noted. The distribution of deep sources of the anomalous magnetic field in 2D format for the low-frequency component of the magnetic field also reflects the structure of the earth's crust in the western part of the Mezen syneclise. Intense long-period magnetic anomalies here most likely reflect the saturation of the products of basic-ultramafic magmatism in the upper granite-metamorphic layer of the earth's crust.

ABSTRACT Neolithic long barrows are among the earliest monumental structures in Europe, yet in many parts of Central Europe their surface expression has been largely erased by long‐term agricultural activity. This study evaluates the potential of integrated remote sensing approaches for identifying and contextualizing long barrows and associated archaeological features in the intensively cultivated landscape of north‐western Bohemia, Czech Republic. The analysis focuses on two long barrows near Mount Říp (Dušníky 1 and Nížebohy) and combines oblique aerial photography, magnetic survey and airborne laser scanning (ALS). The results demonstrate that even heavily levelled long barrows remain detectable through the complementary use of non‐invasive methods. ALS confirms the presence of subdued barrow mantles, while aerial imagery and magnetometry provide key information on monument layout, internal structure and associated burial features. In addition, the remote sensing data reveal further funerary monuments of later prehistoric periods, indicating long‐term continuity of burial practices and the development of enduring ritual landscapes. Settlement activities are spatially restricted and clearly separated from funerary zones. This study highlights the value of multi‐method remote sensing for reconstructing prehistoric burial landscapes in intensively cultivated regions.

Abstract Unregulated mining activities have left behind numerous poorly documented goafs at certain depths. These goafs pose significant threats to subsequent open-pit mining operations and compromise the safety and stability of engineering structures. However, their efficient and precise identification, coupled with the acquisition of high-resolution data to support subsequent safety mitigation, remains a critical technical challenge. To address this, we investigated the air-filled goafs resulting from early unregulated mining in the Dalazi iron deposit. An integrated geophysical approach, combining magnetic survey, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), transient electromagnetic method (TEM), and 3D laser scanning, was employed to identify and locate these goafs within the iron ore body. Magnetic method delineated a region of prominent positive magnetic anomaly (ZYC1) generated by shallow-seated, high-grade magnetite ore bodies, while revealing a weak negative magnetic anomaly (FYC1) within ZYC1 induced by localized anthropogenic ore depletion (goafs). The integrated application of ERT (using a Wenner array for high resolution) and TEM (with its flexible deployment) enables accurate identification of air-filled goafs within iron ore bodies in confined mining spaces across specific depth intervals. This strategy successfully detected and localized geophysical anomalies on the + 274 m and + 288 m mining platforms, which were attributed to goafs KQ-1 and KQ-2. It is noteworthy that ERT can characterize the extent of fracture development within the rock mass surrounding goafs. Subsequently, 3D models of the air-filled goafs were constructed using borehole verification and 3D laser scanning data. The maximum elevation difference between the roof and floor of the air-filled goafs reached 61 m, with a total combined volume of 124,361.57 m3 for two air-filled goafs (KQ-1: 88,576.78 m3; KQ-2: 35,784.79 m3). Projection area analysis revealed that 5,000 m2 of surface area is subject to potential mining safety hazards. Furthermore, this study indicates that the integration of ERT with 3D laser scanning can provide critical data for the ongoing assessment of goaf roof stability.

A numerical framework for fibre orientation prediction in fibre-reinforced concrete tunnel linings

Combined analysis of magnetic investigations and geological mapping of the Babouri-Figuil Basin (Northern Cameroon): Implications for hydrocarbon prospects

Most urban waste dumpsites are rarely properly sited (without prior feasibility studies to assess suitability) and are poorly managed. The contents of the waste and the degree of environmental impacts of the generated leachates are unknown, necessitating post-decommissioning assessment, which often involves geophysical, hydrological, and hydrochemical investigations. The Onibueja waste dumpsite near Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria, decommissioned in 2018 after 13 years of operation, recently underwent environmental screening using the magnetic method to determine its contents, the dumpsite margin, and the influence of basement structures on the lateral/depth extents and direction of migration of its leachates. The magnetic survey involved measurements of the Earth’s total magnetic field with the Proton Precession Magnetometer at intervals of 10 to 20 m. A total of 924 stations were occupied. The magnetic data were corrected for diurnal variation and offset and subsequently reduced to the equator (RTE). The RTE data were subjected to enhancement filters, including upward continuation (UWC), total horizontal derivative (THD), analytical signal (AS), and Euler deconvolution (EUD) to residualise the waste contributions in the data and map lineaments. The dumpsite is characterised by low (non-metallic) and high (metallic) amplitudes THD derivative of the residualised RTE anomaly, with the peak amplitudes of the anomaly maxima coinciding significantly with the georeferenced margin of the dumpsite. Eighteen synthesised THD, AS and EUD-derived magnetic lineaments were delineated. The lineaments insignificantly influence the direction of migration of leachates, which was primarily defined by surface run-off and groundwater flow directions. The structural elements, however, significantly account for the deep depth extents of suspected leachate plumes. It is concluded that in the basement complex environment, the magnetic method finds applications in pre-construction feasibility study for delineation of subsurface structures (lineaments) and post-decommissioning assessment of contents, definition of waste boundary, and depth extent of pollution plumes.

To address the technical challenges in exploring concealed high-grade iron deposits in China, this study focuses on Banded Iron Formation, BIF, which represents the largest reserves and hosts the greatest number of large-scale deposits in the country. The Gongchangling iron deposit, a typical high-grade iron deposit in the Anben region, was selected as the main study area. In situ measurements and statistical analysis of the geophysical parameters of rocks and ores were conducted, with an emphasis on evaluating their sensitivity to high-grade magnetite mineralization. Based on this analysis, an integrated gravity, magnetic, and electrical survey method was identified as the optimal exploration approach. Building on this foundation, high-precision gravity and magnetic surveys were performed to investigate the geophysical anomaly response mechanisms of the Gongchangling-type high-grade ores. Forward and inverse modeling were applied to identify deep-seated concealed iron ore bodies, with results further validated by audio-frequency magnetotellurics. This study enhances the methodological framework for mineral exploration, improves prospecting efficiency, and provides practical insights to support new breakthroughs in exploration initiatives.