In Europe are known 496 species daily butterflies, which belong to 111 genera in 21 subfamilies and six families (Martin Wiemers et al., 2018). Changes compared to the last version of the checklist (Krpach et all., 2008) 8 species of butterflies more have been added for the territory of the Republic of North Macedonia, so far is checked the list of 212 species, arranged in to 85 genera, 14 tribusis, 14 subfamilies and 5 families. The family Hesperiidae – Skippers is represented by 28 species; family Papilionidae – Swallowtail butterflies by 7 species; family Pieridae – Whites, Yellows, and Sulphurs by 25 species; family Lycaenidae – Gossamer-Winged Butterflies (Blues, Coppers, Hairstreaks, Harvesters) is presented by 57; family Nymphalidae – Brush-footed Butterflies or Four-footed Butterflies (Emperors, Admirals, Tortoiseshells and Fritillaries) by 95 species. Such huge number of species compared to the rest of European countries is illustrating the abundance of Fauna of daily butterflies in the Republic of North Macedonia.

Diversity of Lycaenid Butterflies in Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India

Constraints on chromosome evolution revealed by the 229 chromosome pairs of the Atlas blue butterfly.

The Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011 caused adverse phenotypic changes in wild organisms in radioactively polluted areas. However, few studies have investigated genetic changes after the accident. Here, we analyzed the nuclear DNA sequences of internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) from the pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha collected in 2011–2014 (n = 389). We detected 29 haplotypes, but the most frequent haplotype (H1) represented 86% of alleles examined. The haplotype H22 from Takahagi phylogenetically had the latest sequence, suggesting that it may be a novel mutant produced by the accident or just a minor existing haplotype. In Fukushima Prefecture, the H1 percentage oscillated; it peaked in Fall 2011 and decreased in Spring 2012 but peaked again in Fall 2012. Haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity were low in Spring 2012 and Fall 2012 and then increased. The ratio of H1 to nonH1 was significantly different between the early and late periods of our field surveys. These results suggest that genetic diversity in Fukushima Prefecture initially decreased through a selection process in response to the Fukushima nuclear accident but was recovered by Fall 2014, probably due to immigrants and emerging mutants, which is consistent with previous morphological abnormality data.

Cycads are being endangered by several anthropogenic threats, and invasions of non-native herbivores are among those threats. Various country invasions by the cycad blue butterfly Luthrodes pandava have threatened the local horticulture cycad trade and native cycad populations. Little is known about behaviors of the larval stage of this specialist herbivore, the life phase that causes damage to cycad leaf tissue. The objective here was to determine larval ability to discriminate among Cycas species that are known to exhibit contrasting susceptibility to L. pandava herbivory. Dual-choice cafeteria protocols were used whereby a single larvae was provisioned with one leaflet of minimally damaged species (low quality) and one leaflet of heavily damaged species (high quality). Consumption after an 8 h feeding cycle was measured as loss in leaflet area. Wild L. pandava populations derived from in situ Philippine and Thailand Cycas habitats preferentially fed on high quality leaflets. In contrast, invasive L. pandava populations from urban locations in Guam, Philippines, and Thailand exhibited no preferences in leaflet feeding choice. The findings indicated that larvae of this Lycaenidae specialist herbivore exhibit complex selection behaviors that depend on origin of the butterfly and feeding history. Discrimination capabilities of the in situ populations that evolved with a single native Cycas species demonstrated beneficial behaviors that appear to be lost over time by invasive populations that feed on numerous novel Cycas hosts within the invasive range.

The blue butterfly pea flower (Clitoria ternatea) is a medicinal plant rich in bioactive compounds, including anthocyanins and flavonoids, with health benefits and potential in the food and cosmetics industries. There has been no scientific study on the non-specific parameters of cultivated butterfly pea flowers and their simple quality related to the environmental conditions in the village. Standardization of non-specific parameters, such as moisture content, ash content, and microbial contamination, is crucial to ensure the quality and safety of butterfly pea-based products. This research aims to analyze the non-specific parameters of butterfly pea in support of developing quality standards suitable for the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. The research method uses experimental techniques, starting with sample collection, laboratory analysis, and data analysis. The results of the water-soluble ash test, 99.63% indicate contamination by inorganic compounds that dissolve in water, while the acid-insoluble ash content of 0.09% suggests minimal contamination by silica. The water-soluble extract content of 54.98% and the ethanol-soluble extract content of 99.98% indicate the solubility of compounds in solvents, which are important for the extraction and formulation of traditional medicine products or herbal products that use water and ethanol as solvents. In conclusion, the results of non-specific parameter tests on the blue butterfly pea flower simplicia from Cipangeran Village indicate that the simplicia has excellent physicochemical qualities.

Butterflies are well known for their ecological services as good pollinators and bioindicators of ecosystem health. The current study examined the diversity and abundance of butterflies on the Acharya Prafulla Chandra College campus between November and March. A total of 36 species from 5 families were identified. The family Lycaenidae contributed the most species (13), while Hesperiidae only had two. The family Pieridae (34%) displayed the highest abundance count, indicating its dominance within the assemblage, followed by Lycaenidae (24.7%), Nymphalidae (20.7%), Papilionidae (18.7%), and Hesperiidae (1.8%). Species were categorized as rare, regular, or abundant, with community structure reflecting the coexistence of a few dominant taxa alongside several rare ones. Diversity peaked in November (H? = 3.355, Simpson 1–D = 0.9602), which corresponded with favorable floral resources, demonstrating seasonal variation. Rank abundance curves showed a log-normal distribution of species, indicating ecological stability, and rarefaction analysis validated sufficient sampling effort. NMDS showed distinct clustering and separation of butterfly assemblages across habitat types, reflecting habitat heterogeneity. Pieridae and Nymphalidae occupied multiple habitats, whereas Lycaenidae and Papilionidae were associated with specific vegetation, particularly nectar-rich ornamental gardens. Overall, the results provide baseline data for long-term monitoring and conservation plans, highlighting the significance of the college campus's semi-urban landscape as a butterfly habitat.

Aposematism consists of promptly identifiable signals paired with a secondary defence (e.g. toxins) and is an effective anti-predatory strategy. Visually aposematic signals are typically described as shades of red, yellow or white paired with black that generate conspicuous signals. Blue animals, however, are often overlooked and seldom tested for toxins even when conspicuous. Using Daphnia mortality assays, I show that the common grass blue butterfly, Zizina otis, is toxic (∼40% fatality, while controls killed near 0%). Female Z. otis were more toxic than males, and tropical populations were more toxic than subtropical ones, with temperate populations being the least toxic. Population colour saturation and luminance, however, did not predict toxicity. My results demonstrate a literature bias in aposematic research and encourage the exploration of toxins in previously neglected taxa. Discovering more colour patterns associated with toxicity will help clarify how aversive learning works, and how signals that communicate unprofitability evolve.

Within the framework of organizing the general collection of tropical butterflies in the National Museum of the Czech Republic, the type material of species described by Napoleon Manuel Kheil is reviewed. The present paper deals with the types in the family Lycaenidae and comprises a total of 11 taxa. Current status, distribution, and photos of adults and genitalia are given for each taxon. Further taxonomic changes were made as a part of the study. Miletus lahomius Kheil, 1884, until now considered a subspecies of Logania marmorata Moore, 1884, is transferred from the genus Logania Distant, 1884 to the genus Allotinus C. & R. Felder, [1865] and raised to the species level as Allotinus lahomius (Kheil, 1884) comb. & stat. nov., which has priority over L. marmorata; as a result, all its existing subspecies are reclassified as subspecies of A. lahomius: Allotinus lahomius lahomius (Kheil, 1884), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius damis (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius diehli (Eliot, 1986), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius faustina (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius hilaeira (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius javanica (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius marmorata (Moore, 1884), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius munichya (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov., Allotinus lahomius palawana (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov., and Allotinus lahomius samosata (Fruhstorfer, 1914), comb. & stat. nov. Taxon semanga Corbet, 1940 is transferred from the subspecies level of Chliaria othona (Hewitson, 1865) to the subspecies level of Chliaria tora (Kheil, 1884) as Chliaria tora semanga Corbet, 1940, stat. nov. Taxon pumilina van Eecke, 1918 is transferred from the subspecies of Chliaria tora (Kheil, 1884) to the subspecies of Chliaria othona (Hewitson, 1865) as Chliaria othona pumilina van Eecke, 1918, stat. nov. Tajuria cippus bagus (Kheil, 1884), is restored to the species level: Tajuria bagus (Kheil, 1884), stat. restit. Deudorix hypargyria (Elwes, 1893) is downgraded, and Deudorix hypargyria strephanus (Druce, 1896) and Deudorix hypargyria annawarneckae Schröder & Treadaway, 2013 are transferred to the subspecies of Deudorix calderon Kheil, 1884, stat. restit., as Deudorix calderon hypargyria (Elwes, 1893), stat. nov., Deudorix hypargyria strephanus (Druce, 1896), stat. nov., and Deudorix calderon annawarneckae Schröder & Treadaway, 2013, stat. nov., respectively.

Chromosomal rearrangements act as barriers to gene flow and can thus promote speciation. In moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), which possess holocentric chromosomes facilitating karyotype changes, chromosome fusions are more common than fissions. Yet, limited evidence suggests that when speciation involves chromosomal rearrangements, it is most often linked to fissions. Notable karyotypic variation is observed in three clades of the subfamily Polyommatinae (Lycaenidae), with chromosome numbers ranging from n = 10 to 225. We investigated genome sizes and karyotypes in several species of the genera Polyommatus and Lysandra with modal and derived high chromosome numbers. Our findings showed no support for polyploidy, confirming previous conclusions about karyotypic diversification via chromosome fragmentation in this butterfly family. Species with high chromosome numbers have slightly larger genomes, which indicate a potential role of repetitive sequences but contradict the hypothesis of holocentric drive. Ends of fragmented chromosomes were healed with telomeres synthesized de novo, which were significantly larger than those of species with modal karyotype. No interstitial telomeric sequences were detected on autosomes. Internal telomeric signals on sex chromosomes, however, revealed multiple sex chromosome systems in Polyommatus (Plebicula) dorylas and Polyommatus icarus, with two karyotype races differing in sex chromosome constitution in the latter. Notably, the W chromosome resisted fragmentation, presumably due to its epigenetic silencing.

The potential distribution of the pulse blue butterfly, Lampides boeticus (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), was determined using MaxEnt, random forest, and ensemble models. The results indicate that most tropical, subtropical, and some temperate regions are suitable habitats. Climate change is projected to expand the species' habitat northward in the Northern Hemisphere. Predicted distributions aligned well with the known occurrence records for the species. The minimum temperature of the coldest month was the climatic variable that most strongly influenced the distribution of L. boeticus. As a tropical and subtropical species, it is assumed that cold temperatures are the main factor limiting its habitat range. Because the potential distribution of this pest covers major pulse cultivation areas under both current and future climate scenarios, these findings highlight the urgent need for developing a sustainable pest management strategy.

The growing consumer interest in health-promoting foods has encouraged the development of yogurt fortified with plant-based additives. This study focused on the effect of aqueous extracts from ginger (Zingiber officinale) rhizome, blue butterfly pea (Clitoria ternatea) flower, and ivy (Coccinia grandis) leaf on the physicochemical and functional characteristics of yogurt, with a particular emphasis on understanding their interaction with milk proteins. Incorporating all the plant extracts enhanced consumer satisfaction regarding color, odor, texture, taste, mouthfeel, and aftertaste. The ivy leaf and blue butterfly pea flower fortification significantly reduced the pH values and increased the acidity compared with the unfortified yogurt on Day 1. This effect is further validated by lactic acid bacteria count results, suggesting that these extracts can promote the growth of lactic acid bacteria. The elevated total phenolic and antioxidant activities in the fortified yogurts validated the fortification process. FTIR analysis confirmed a possible change in the milk protein secondary structure due to the plant's phytochemicals. SEM analysis confirmed that these structural changes, depending on the plant extract, could be either beneficial or detrimental. Specifically, ginger and blue butterfly pea flower extract fortification reduced protein aggregate size and formed more compact and denser gel networks, resulting in lower syneresis and a higher viscosity yogurt structure compared to the unfortified yogurt. In contrast, ivy leaf extract fortification formed a less dense and less compact structure with large aggregates, resulting in higher syneresis and lower viscosity. The overall findings suggest promising opportunities for the yogurt industry with ginger and blue butterfly pea flowers while highlighting the need for in-depth research on ivy leaf extract-fortified yogurts.

The Branded Imperial Eooxylides tharis Geyer, 1837 is a lycaenid butterflies found in mainland Sumatra and Belitung Island, but no references provided information if this butterfly occur in Bangka Island. On 7 December 2024, few individuals of E. tharis were observed and documented in Pelawan Forest, Namang Village, Central Bangka District, Bangka Island, Sumatra. In addition, there are two reports from citizen science platform about the presence of E. tharis in Bangka Island. The status of which subspecies is discussed, and it is possible that population of E. tharis from Bangka Island represent a new subspecies. Keywords: Bangka, Branded Imperial, Eooxylides tharis, Rhopalocera, Sumatra.

Many studies have demonstrated the benefits of basic research and yet attacks on basic research remain a current threat to science. In this Perspective, I use the Morpho butterfly as the subject of a historical narrative that starts with present day applications, then traces the roots of current innovation back to a foundation of basic research. Throughout, I ask what drew researchers to this fascinating insect; the answer generally involves the concepts of curiosity or wonder. This case study adds to many examples showing that applications, which themselves often take decades of development, often stem from centuries of observation and experimentation that are completely divorced from any applied research. But it also highlights the critical value of government and institutional support for basic research; without public funding, scientific inquiry would be guided by private interests, and curiosity-driven efforts would be limited to self-funded efforts by the wealthy. When we do support basic inquiry, we must also consider how to foster curiosity around those organisms that might be less flashy or charismatic, as we have much to learn from the ten million species on Earth.

Background: Four different pod borers species viz., Spotted pod borer (Maruca vitrata), Tobacco cutworm (Spodoptera litura), Gram blue butterfly (Euchrysops cnejus) and Banner moth (Eublemma dimidialis) were collected from black gram fields of Tirupati district, Andhra Pradesh. Methods: Molecular characterization of mtCOI sequences of the four black gram pod borer species were deposited in NCBI and accession numbers were allotted, M. vitrata (PP938848), S. litura (PP938758), E. cnejus (PP938841) and E. dimidialis (PP938850) respectively. DNA barcodes were generated and BINs were allotted for four different pod borers and available at BOLD public database. Result: The phylogenetic analysis of all the pod borers together revealed that the pod borer species were distinctly separated at genus level and were grouped into congeneric clusters. The DNA barcode of E. dimidialis (BOLD:AAB6502) was generated for the first time from India and the DNA barcode of E. cnejus (BOLD:AAD0845) was generated for the first time from Andhra Pradesh, India.

Abstract A long‐term study was made of the carrying capacities (K) of UK grasslands restored to support the endangered butterfly Phengaris arion. This iconic species is the focus of major restoration programmes and provides a blueprint for the conservation of other threatened insects. Phengaris arion larvae are phytophagous during their early instars before switching to become obligate social parasites of Myrmica ant colonies for their main growth. A mechanistic model, incorporating life‐table measurements of natality and mortalities, was used to predict the value of K on 19 restorations. Predictions were compared with actual butterfly densities measured for up to 33 consecutive generations per site over 43 years. The model suggested that individual sites vary by up to a hundred‐fold in the density of butterflies each would support. Observed densities closely correlated with model predictions, with the most productive site supporting 129 times more butterflies per square metre than the least productive one. Of seven life‐table parameters modelled, the three that explained observed butterfly densities best describe the distribution and fitness of its primary host ant species, Myrmica sabuleti. Population densities correlated most closely with the density of host ant nests. Annual fluctuations in P. arion numbers attributable to the weather were one to two orders of magnitude lower than the differences between site carrying capacity densities. Even extreme events, such as drought, caused perturbations one order of magnitude smaller than inter‐site carrying capacity variations. Synthesis and applications. Observed population dynamics of P. arion conform with theories of a definable ceiling for insect numbers, controlled by density dependence and limited by a larval resource that is typically more specialised and rarer within sites than was once perceived. At a practical level, the model provides a useful tool for determining which future sites should be prioritised for the persistence of this endangered species and for new restorations. More generally, the results support two concepts: (i) once suitable management has been implemented, effects of intrinsic site characteristics on numbers greatly exceed interannual fluctuations; and (ii) understanding how the quality of larval habitat varies between sites is paramount when restoring the size and resilience of populations of declining invertebrates.

The pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha has been used to evaluate the biological effects of the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011. Here, we examined the DNA sequences of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) of Z. maha using the field samples collected in 2011–2014 and 2021. Among 641 individuals from 44 localities in Northeastern Japan, we detected a heteroplasmic nonsynonymous nucleotide substitution in one out of three 2012 individuals from Hirono, Fukushima Prefecture, where the biological impact of radioactive pollution was the highest among the localities surveyed in 2012, suggesting DNA damage via initial exposure to short-lived radionuclides. An additional 80 individuals from Hirono in 2021 did not show any substitution, suggesting the extinction of the Hirono mutant by 2021. We also detected another heteroplasmic and homoplasmic nonsynonymous substitution in four out of five 2014 individuals from Shibata, Niigata Prefecture, where radioactive pollution was low. These substitutions were not present in the GenBank records of Z. maha and its sister species Z. karsandra, indicating that intraspecific variation may exceed interspecific variation in Z. maha. These results highlight not only the possible impact of the initial exposure in Fukushima but also real-time molecular evolution of butterflies in the field.

SummaryRestoring critically imperiled midwestern oak savanna habitat is frequently guided by the requirements of the federally endangered Karner blue butterfly (Plebejus melissa samuelis). Although studies often correlate butterfly population size or density with nectar species abundance, nectar characteristics are seldom considered.We compared floral nectar resources across 15 sites categorized by Karner blue butterfly occupancy by quantifying the floral abundance, nectar volume, and sugar concentration for 22 species, calculating their mean nectar availability per stem, measuring environmental variables, and estimating a species' nectar sugar contribution to the landscape across seasons.Species identity predicted nectar volume and sugar concentrations. Mean nectar volume ranged between 0.02 and 2.20 μl and sugar ranged between 3.06% and 61.26% Brix per flower. Rubus flagellaris and Ceanothus americanus contributed the most nectar sugar per stem in the spring and summer, respectively. Sites with a history of occupation had 11 times greater nectar sugar available in the spring than previous release locations or restorations without occupation.Improved understanding of seasonal distribution, quality, and abundance of oak savanna nectar resources is likely to aid habitat restoration planning and conservation efforts for pollinators of this critically imperiled habitat.

Abstract A temporal bet‐hedging strategy spreads demographic risk across multiple years via diapause/dormancy mechanisms. Diapause polymorphisms (i.e. individuals varying in the length of their diapause) are said to lead to greater persistence in white‐noise stochastic environments but to be less advantageous in temporally autocorrelated or ‘reddened’ environments because immediate future conditions are more predictable. Only diapause lasting for up to 2 years has been investigated, despite numerous species possessing longer diapause polymorphisms. We predicted that longer diapause polymorphisms (>2 years) would extend the advantage of a bet‐hedging strategy to times when reddened environments become unpredictable again. Using data from the Sinai Baton Blue butterfly, we modelled the effect of longer‐diapause strategies (>2 years) and varying degrees of temporal autocorrelation of environmental stochasticity. Both 3‐year and 8‐year diapause polymorphisms were more advantageous, characterised by greater stability or slower population decline than a simple one‐year diapause in white‐noise stochastic environments; while the longer 8‐year diapause polymorphism was more advantageous in reddened stochastic environments. This marks the first evidence that longer diapause polymorphisms are an evolutionary response to reddened stochastic environments.

ABSTRACTHerbivorous insects tolerate chemical and metabolic variation in their host plant diet by modulating physiological traits. Insect immune response is one such trait that plays a crucial role in maintaining fitness but can be heavily influenced by variation in host plant quality. An important question is how the use of different host plants affects the ability of herbivorous insects to resist viral pathogens. Furthermore, the transcriptional changes associated with this interaction of diet and viral pathogens remain understudied. The Melissa blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa) has colonised the exotic legume Medicago sativa as a larval host within the past 200 years. We used this system to study the interplay between the effects of host plant variation and viral infection on physiological responses and global gene expression. We measured immune strength in response to infection by the Junonia coenia densovirus (JcDV) in two ways: (1) direct measurement of phenoloxidase activity and melanisation, and (2) transcriptional sequencing of individuals exposed to different viral and host plant treatments. Our results demonstrate that viral infection caused total phenoloxidase (total PO) to increase and viral infection and host plant interactively affected total PO such that for infected larvae, total PO was significantly higher for larvae consuming the native host plant. Additionally, L. melissa larvae differentially expressed several hundred genes in response to host plant treatment, but with minimal changes in gene expression in response to viral infection. Not only immune genes, but several detoxification, transporter, and oxidase genes were differentially expressed in response to host plant treatments. These results demonstrate that in herbivorous insects, consumption of a novel host plant can alter both physiological and transcriptional responses relevant to viral infection, emphasising the importance of considering immune and detoxification mechanisms into models of evolution of host range in herbivorous insects.