Low-pressure Turbine Airfoil Research Articles

Prediction of the Influence of the Inlet End-Wall Boundary Layer on the Secondary Flow of a Low Pressure Turbine Airfoil Using RANS and Large-Eddy Simulations

Abstract This paper analyzes the effect of the inlet end-wall boundary layer on the secondary flow of a low pressure turbine airfoil cascade at Reynolds number 2 × 105 using RANS and implicit large-eddy simulations (LES). The results are compared against experimental data obtained at two low-speed linear cascade facilities, one located at the Whittle Laboratory of the University of Cambridge and the other at the Polytechnic University of Madrid. The RANS turbulence model is the k−ω−γ−Reθt and no sub-grid scale model has been used in the LES. An unstructured mesh of hexahedra and prisms is used, with high order elements used in the boundary layer region to better describe the airfoil shape in the LES. Two inlet end-wall boundary layers that produce different secondary flow patterns are analyzed: a laminar thin velocity profile and a turbulent thick velocity profile with several inlet turbulent intensities. The agreement between LES numerical predictions and experimental measurements of the position and intensity of the secondary vortices is very good for both cases. RANS simulations are much cheaper in terms of computational cost and reasonably predict most of the flow features, except when the inlet turbulence is low and turbulent transition prediction becomes critical. The effect of the inlet velocity profiles and inlet turbulence on the secondary flow structure is quite pronounced. The velocity profile thickness determines the spanwise penetration of the passage vortex, and different inlet turbulence intensities modify its mixing. Higher inlet turbulence intensities lead to a decrease of the secondary losses due to the passage vortex and an increase of end-wall losses.

Time-Inclined Method for High-Fidelity Rotor/Stator Simulations

The application of the time-inclined method in a fourth-order unstructured flux-reconstruction code for turbomachinery is demonstrated. Inviscid and viscous unsteady results due to the interaction of an incoming gust of total pressure with a linear cascade of flat plates and a linear cascade of T106A low-pressure turbine airfoils are reported. The agreement between the time-inclined method and the equivalent full-annulus multipassage solution is very high for both cases. Viscous solutions at Reynolds numbers of 104 and 105 were conducted. A high degree of matching was obtained between the time-inclined and the whole annulus approaches. The limitations of the method are explored and discussed. While the evolution of the unsteady boundary layers created by the interaction with the incoming wakes was very well captured, the mixing associated with the trailing edge vortex shedding was less accurate. The critical parameter controlling the method’s accuracy is the local Strouhal number. It was demonstrated that the benefit of retaining the exact blade count in the simulations overcomes the slight differences in the mixing due to the limitation of the time-inclined method to model viscous effects accurately in all situations.

Impact of three-dimensional turbulence modelling on rotor/stator interaction broadband noise

An accurate prediction of Fan/Outlet-Guide-Vane (OGV) interaction broadband noise (BBN) is fundamental to correctly characterise the noise footprint of high bypass ratio turbofan engines. A three-dimensional synthetic turbulence BBN prediction methodology, which accounts for cascade effects and the airfoil geometry using a frequency-domain Linearised Navier–Stokes Solver, is presented in this work. The methodology computes the BBN generated by an infinite three-dimensional (3D) linear cascade using a spectral representation in the spanwise direction. The 3D problem is reconstructed analytically using two-dimensional (2D) simulations, including additional source terms coming from the spanwise spatial derivatives, leading to a high computational efficiency compared to a standard 3D approach. The methodology has been applied to assess the impact of oblique gusts on a Fan/OGV and a low-pressure turbine airfoil, and the results are compared to a 2D methodology and a previously proposed quasi-3D (q3D) formulation. Differences of more than 10 dB arise when comparing the 3D results with a purely 2D approach caused by the over-estimation of the turbulent kinetic energy that can produce cut-on acoustic modes. The validity of a q3D correction to mitigate this 2D effect has been assessed, demonstrating differences smaller than 2 dB concerning the 3D formulation, and therefore, its use can be justified for rapid predictions. The 3D methodology removes the unphysical impact of the 2D cascade resonances that appear in the q3D approach. The differences between the 3D and q3D approaches have been assessed in detail using an azimuthal noise decomposition. Even though the acoustic response can be remarkably affected by changes in the spanwise wavenumber, the noise azimuthal decomposition and frequency spectra exhibit a similar shape because the acoustic response is relatively constant within a significant fraction of the spanwise wavenumbers that enable sound radiation.

Surface Roughness Impact on Boundary Layer Transition and Loss Mechanisms Over a Flat-Plate Under a Low-Pressure Turbine Pressure Gradient

Abstract An experimental study has been conducted to investigate the effects of surface roughness on the profile loss of a flat-plate with a contoured wall. All of the measurements have been conducted for the suction side pressure gradient of a high-lift low pressure turbine airfoil at the fixed freestream turbulence intensity (Tu) of 3.2% under Reynolds numbers of Rec = 1. 2 · 105 (cruise) and Rec = 5.2 · 105 (take-off). The time-resolved streamwise and wall-normal velocity fields for three different surface roughness values of Ra/C · 105 = 0.065, 4.417, and 7.428 have been measured with a 2D hot-wire probe. At the take-off condition (Rec = 5.2 · 105), attached flow transition occurs, and increased surface roughness increases the loss. For all of the surfaces, momentum deficits in the laminar to early transition region (γ ≈ 0.05) are similar. For the intermediate transition (γ ≈ 0.5), increased roughness reduces the Reynolds stress and accelerates the breakdown of large-scale turbulent spots into small-scale turbulent eddies. Therefore, turbulent energy and momentum deficit are decreased for rough surfaces. For the late transition (γ > 0.9), transitional boundary layers become similar to turbulent boundary layers, and increased surface roughness increases turbulent mixing, boundary layer thickness, and, hence, the momentum deficit. On the other hand, at the cruise condition (Rec = 1.2 · 105), separated flow transition occurs and increased surface roughness decreases loss. Since the portion of turbulent flow is relatively small, the overall profile loss is mainly determined by the momentum deficit generated during transition. Increased roughness decreases the maximum height and length of the separation bubble but does not affect the separation bubble onset location. The beneficial effects of increased surface roughness on the profile loss appear in the separated shear layer and reattachment. Increased surface roughness increases turbulent mixing in the separated shear layer, reducing the shear layer thickness and momentum deficit. In addition, increased surface roughness reduces the length scale and turbulence intensity of the shed vortices. Consequently, turbulent mixing and momentum deficit during the reattachment of boundary layers are decreased, resulting in a lower profile loss.

Numerical and Experimental Investigation of the Reynolds Number and Reduced Frequency Effects on Low-Pressure Turbine Airfoils

Abstract This article compares experimental and numerical data for a low-speed high-lift low pressure turbine (LPT) cascade under unsteady flow conditions. Three Reynolds numbers representative of LPTs have been tested, namely, 5 × 104, 105, and 2 × 105; at two reduced frequencies, fr = 0.5 and 1, also representative of LPTs. The experimental data were obtained at the low-speed linear cascade wind tunnel at the Polytechnic University of Madrid using hot wire, Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV), and pressure tappings. The numerical solver employs a sixth-order compact scheme based on the flux reconstruction method for spatial discretization and a fourth-order Runge–Kutta method to march in time. The longest case ran 550 h on 40 GPUs to reach a statistically periodic state. Pressure coefficients around the profile, boundary layer profiles and exit cross section distributions of velocity, pressure loss defect, shear Reynolds stress, and angle are compared against high-quality experimental data. Cascade loss and exit angle have also been compared against the experimental data. Very good agreement between experimental and numerical data is seen. The results demonstrate the suitability of the present methodology to predict the aerodynamic properties of unsteady flows around LPT linear cascades accurately.

Prediction of Reynolds Number Effects on Low-Pressure Turbines Using a High-Order ILES Method

Abstract A comprehensive comparison between implicit large eddy simulations (ILES) and experimental results of a modern high-lift low-pressure turbine airfoil has been carried out for an array of Reynolds numbers (Re). Experimental data were obtained in a low-speed linear cascade at the Polytechnic University of Madrid using hot-wire anemometry and laser-Doppler velocimetry (LDV). The numerical code is fourth-order accurate, both in time and space. The spatial discretization of the compressible Navier–Stokes equations is based on a high-order flux reconstruction approach while a fourth-order Runge–Kutta method is used to march in time the simulations. The losses, pressure coefficient distributions, and boundary layer and wake velocity profiles have been compared for an array of realistic Reynolds numbers. Moreover, boundary layer and wake velocity fluctuations are compared for the first time with experimental results. It is concluded that the accuracy of the numerical results is comparable to that of the experiments, especially for integral quantities such as the losses or exit angle. Turbulent fluctuations in the suction side boundary layer and the wakes are well predicted too. The elapsed time of the simulations is about 140 h on 40 graphics processor units. The numerical tool is integrated within an industrial design system and reuses pre- and post-processing tools previously developed for another kind of applications. The trend of the losses with the Reynolds number has a sub-critical regime, where the losses scale with Re−1, and a supercritical regime, where the losses scale with Re−1/2. This trend can be seen both in the simulations and in the experiments.

A Study on Flow Control Effect by Application of Gurney Flaps in Low Pressure Turbine Airfoils for Aeroengine

A Study on Flow Control Effect by Application of Gurney Flaps in Low Pressure Turbine Airfoils for Aeroengine

Studies on Efficiency Improvemene of High-Lift Low Pressure Turbine Airfoils for Aero Engines

Studies on Efficiency Improvemene of High-Lift Low Pressure Turbine Airfoils for Aero Engines

Quantification of the Influence of Unsteady Aerodynamic Loading on the Damping Characteristics of Airfoils Oscillating at Low Reduced Frequency—Part II: Numerical Verification

This paper numerically investigates the correlation between the so-called unsteady loading parameter (ULP), derived in Part I of the corresponding paper, and the unsteady aerodynamics of oscillating airfoils at low reduced frequency with special emphasis on the work-per-cycle curves. Simulations using a frequency-domain linearized Navier–Stokes solver have been carried out on rows of a low-pressure turbine airfoil section, the NACA65 section, and a flat plate, to show the correlation between the actual value of the ULP and the flutter characteristics, for different airfoils, operating conditions, and mode shapes. Both the traveling wave and influence coefficient formulations of the problem are used in combination to increase the understanding of the ULP influence in different aspects of the unsteady flow field. It is concluded that, for a blade vibrating in a prescribed motion at design conditions, the ULP can quantitatively predict the effect of unsteady loading variations due to changes in both the incidence and the mode shape on the work-per-cycle curves. It is also proved that the unsteady loading parameter can be used to qualitatively compare the flutter characteristics of different airfoils.

Effect of Blade Profile Contouring on Endwall Flow Structure in a High-Lift Low-Pressure Turbine Cascade

Previous work has shown that low-stagger contouring near the endwall of a nominally high-lift and high-stagger angle front-loaded low-pressure turbine (LPT) airfoil is successful in reducing endwall loss by limiting the development and migration of low momentum fluid associated with secondary flow structures. The design modification that leads to loss reduction in that study was determined from an intuitive approach based on the premise that reducing flow separation near the endwall will lead to reduced loss production. Those authors also relied heavily upon Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) based computational tools. Due to uncertainties inherent in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) predictions, there is little confidence that the authors actually achieved true minimum loss. Despite recent advances in computing capability, turbulence modeling remains a shortcoming of modern design tools. As a contribution to overcoming this problem, this paper offers a three-dimensional (3D) view of the developing mean flow, total pressure, and turbulence fields that gave rise to the loss reduction of the airfoil mentioned above. Experiments are conducted in a linear cascade with aspect ratio of 3.5 and Re = 100,000. The results are derived from stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (PIV) and total pressure measurements inside the passage. Overall, the loss reduction correlates strongly with reduced turbulence production. The aim of this paper is to provide readers with a realistic view of mean flow and turbulence development that include all the components of the Reynolds stress tensor to assess, at least qualitatively, the validity of high fidelity computational tools used to calculate turbine flows.

Effects of periodic wakes on boundary layer development on an ultra-high-lift low pressure turbine airfoil

The laminar-turbulent transition process in the boundary layer is of significant practical interest because the behavior of this boundary layer largely determines the overall efficiency of a low pressure turbine. This article presents complementary experimental and computational studies of the boundary layer development on an ultra-high-lift low pressure turbine airfoil under periodically unsteady incoming flow conditions. Particular emphasis is placed on the influence of the periodic wake on the laminar-turbulent transition process on the blade suction surface. The measurements were distinctive in that a closely spaced array of hot-film sensors allowed a very detailed examination of the suction surface boundary layer behavior. Measurements were made in a low-speed linear cascade facility at a freestream turbulence intensity level of 1.5%, a reduced frequency of 1.28, a flow coefficient of 0.70, and Reynolds numbers of 50,000 and 100,000, based on the cascade inlet velocity and the airfoil axial chord length. Experimental data were supplemented with numerical predictions from a commercially available Computational Fluid Dynamics code. The wake had a significant influence on the boundary layer of the ultra-high-lift low pressure turbine blade. Both the wake’s high turbulence and the negative jet behavior of the wake dominated the interaction between the unsteady wake and the separated boundary layer on the suction surface of the ultra-high-lift low pressure turbine airfoil. The upstream unsteady wake segments convecting through the blade passage behaved as a negative jet, with the highest turbulence occurring above the suction surface around the wake center. Transition of the unsteady boundary layer on the blade suction surface was initiated by the wake turbulence. The incoming wakes promoted transition onset upstream, which led to a periodic suppression of the separation bubble. The loss reduction was a compromise between the positive effect of the separation reduction and the negative effect of the larger turbulent-wetted area after reattachment due to the earlier boundary layer transition caused by the unsteady wakes. It appeared that the successful application of ultra-high-lift low pressure turbine blades required additional loss reduction mechanisms other than “simple” wake-blade interaction.

Implicit Large Eddy Simulation of a Stalled Low-Pressure Turbine Airfoil

Time-accurate numerical simulations were conducted on the aft-loaded L1A low-pressure turbine airfoil at a Reynolds number of 22,000 (based on inlet velocity magnitude and axial chord length). This flow condition produces a nonreattaching laminar separation zone on the airfoil suction surface. The numerical code TURBO is used to simulate this flow field as an implicit large eddy simulation (ILES). Generally, good agreement was found when compared to experimental time-averaged and instantaneous flow measurements. The numerical separation zone is slightly larger than that in the experiments, though integrated wake loss values improved from Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS)-based simulations. Instantaneous snapshots of the numerical flow field showed the Kelvin Helmholtz instability forming in the separated shear layer and a large-scale vortex shedding pattern at the airfoil trailing edge. These features were observed in the experiments with similar sizes and vorticity levels. Power spectral density analyses revealed a global passage oscillation in the numerics that was not observed experimentally. This oscillation was most likely a primary resonant frequency of the numerical domain.

The Low Reduced Frequency Limit of Vibrating Airfoils—Part II: Numerical Experiments

This paper studies the unsteady aerodynamics of vibrating airfoils in the low reduced frequency regime with special emphasis on its impact on the scaling of the work-per-cycle curves by means of numerical experiments. Simulations using a frequency domain linearized Navier–Stokes solver have been carried out on rows of a low-pressure turbine (LPT) airfoil section, the NACA0012 and NACA65 profiles, and a flat-plate cascade operating at different flow conditions. Both the traveling wave (TW) and the influence coefficient (IC) formulations of the problem are used in combination to investigate the nature of the unsteady pressure perturbations. All the theoretical conclusions derived in Part I of the paper have been confirmed, and it is shown that the behavior of the unsteady pressure modulus and phase, as well as the work-per-cycle curves, are fairly independent of the geometry of the airfoil, the operating conditions, and the mode-shape in first-order approximation in the reduced frequency. The second major conclusion is that the airfoil loading and the symmetry of the cascade play an essential role in this trend. Simulations performed at reduced frequency ranges beyond the low reduced frequency limit reveal that, in this regimen, the ICs modulus varies linearly with the reduced frequency, while the phase is always π/2, and then, the classical sinusoidal antisymmetric shape of work-per-cycle curves in the low reduced frequency limit turns into a cosinusoidal symmetric shape. It is then concluded that the classical cosinusoidal shape of compressor airfoils is not neither a geometric nor a flow effect, but a direct consequence of the fact that the natural frequencies of the lowest modes of compressors are higher than that of high aspect ratio cantilever LPT rotor blades. Numerical simulations have also confirmed that the actual mode-shape of the airfoil motion does not alter the conclusions derived in Part I of the paper.

J0520204 乱流促進デバイスを用いた航空エンジン用低圧タービン翼の高負荷化・高性能化に関する研究

This paper details experimental and numerical studies on the effectiveness in controlling boundary layer separation with the performance of dimples on a low-pressure turbine airfoil. The profile loss due to boundary layer separation in LPT has a significant contribution to its overall loss, especially in a high stage loading condition. Hence it becomes important to study methods to control the boundary layer separation. A linear cascade test facility is employed to investigate the aerodynamic performance of the airfoil by use of a miniature Pitot probe. LES simulations are also carried out to gain a better understanding of the flow field around the airfoil. The Reynolds number based on the chord length was varied in the range of 40,000 to 170,000 in order to simulate a typical flight condition. It is found that the proposed methods have a capability to reduce the profile loss and result in improvement of cascade performance.

Physical Understanding and Sensitivities of Low Pressure Turbine Flutter

Successful, efficient turbine design requires a thorough understanding of the underlying physical phenomena. This paper investigates the flutter phenomenon of low pressure turbine (LPT) blades seen in aircraft engines and power turbines. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis will be conducted in a two-dimensional (2D) sense using a frequency domain Reynolds-averaged Navier—Stokes (RANS) solver on a publicly available LPT airfoil geometry: École Polytechnique Fédérale De Lausanne (EPFL's) Standard Configuration 4. An emphasis is placed on revealing the underlying physics behind the threatening LPT flutter mechanism. To this end, flutter sensitivity analysis is conducted on three key parameters: reduced frequency, mode shape, and Mach number. Additionally, exact 2D acoustic resonance interblade phase angles (IBPAs) are analytically predicted as a function of reduced frequency. Made evident via damping versus IBPA plots, the CFD model successfully captures the theoretical acoustic resonance predictions. Studies of the decay of unsteady aerodynamic influence coefficients away from a reference blade are also presented. The influence coefficients provide key insights to the harmonic content of the unsteady pressure field. Finally, this work explores methods of normalizing the work per cycle by the exit dynamic pressure.

End Wall Loss Reduction of High Lift Low Pressure Turbine Airfoils Using Profile Contouring—Part II: Validation

The hypothesis, posed in Part I, that excessive end wall loss of high lift low pressure turbine (LPT) airfoils is due to the influence of high stagger angles on the end wall pressure distribution and not front loading is evaluated in a linear cascade at Re = 100,000 using both experimental and computational studies. A nominally high lift and high stagger angle front-loaded profile (L2F) with aspect ratio 3.5 is contoured at the end wall to reduce the stagger angle while maintaining the front loading. The contouring process effectively generates a fillet at the end wall, so the resulting airfoil is referred to as L2F-EF (end wall fillet). Although referred to as a fillet, this profile contouring process is novel in that it is designed to isolate the effect of stagger angle on end wall loss. Total pressure loss measurements downstream of the blade row indicate that the use of the lower stagger angle at the end wall reduces mixed out mass averaged end wall and passage losses approximately 23% and 10%, respectively. This is in good agreement with computational results used to design the contour which predict 18% and 7% loss reductions. The end wall flow field of the L2F and L2F-EF models is measured using stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (PIV) in the passage. These data are used to quantify changes in the end wall flow field due to the contouring. PIV results show that this loss reduction is characterized by reduced inlet boundary layer separation as well as a change in strength and location of the suction side horseshoe vortex (SHV) and passage vortex (PV). The end wall profile contouring also produces a reduction in all terms of the Reynolds stress tensor consistent with a decrease in deformation work and overall flow unsteadiness. These results confirm that the stagger angle has a significant effect on high-lift front-loaded LPT end wall loss. Low stagger profiling is successful in reducing end wall loss by limiting the development and migration of the low momentum fluid associated with the SHV and PV interaction.

Endwall Loss Reduction of High Lift Low Pressure Turbine Airfoils Using Profile Contouring—Part I: Airfoil Design

This paper presents the reasoning for and the design process of contouring a high lift front-loaded low pressure turbine (LPT) airfoil near the endwall to reduce the endwall loss. The test airfoil, L2F, was designed to the approximate gas angles with 38% larger pitchwise spacing than the widely studied Pack B airfoil. Being more front-loaded with a higher stagger angle, L2F is shown to produce more endwall losses than Pack B. It is suggested that the high endwall loss of L2F is due to the high stagger angle, not front-loading, as usually suggested in the literature. A procedure is presented to approximate the front-loading and stall resistance of L2F and obtain a low stagger version of that airfoil, designated as L2F-LS. A contoured airfoil is then designed by transitioning L2F into L2F-LS at the endwall to obtain a benefit from the reduced stagger angle at the endwall. Due to the contouring process generating a fillet, the contoured airfoil is referred to as L2F-EF (“endwall fillet”). Predictions in this paper suggest endwall loss reductions between 17% and 24% at Re = 100,000. Linear cascade experiments in Part II of this paper indicate that L2F-EF reduces endwall losses more than 20% compared to L2F. The overall conclusion is that the stagger angle has a significant effect on endwall loss and should be considered for designing high lift LPT airfoils at the endwall.

Parametric Optimization of Unsteady End Wall Blowing on a Highly Loaded Low-Pressure Turbine

Efforts to reduce blade count and avoid boundary layer separation have led to low-pressure turbine airfoils with significant increases in loading as well as front-loaded pressure distributions. These features have been independently shown to increase losses within the secondary flow field at the end wall. Compound angle blowing from discrete jets on the blade suction surface near the end wall has been shown to be effective in reducing these increased losses and enabling the efficient use of highly loaded blade designs. In this study, experiments are performed on the front loaded L2F low-pressure turbine airfoil in a linear cascade. The required mass flow is reduced by decreasing the hole count from previous configurations and from the introduction of unsteady blowing. The effects of pulsing frequency and duty cycle are investigated using phase-locked stereo particle image velocimetry to demonstrate the large scale movement and hysteresis behavior of the passage vortex interacting with the pulsed jets. Total pressure loss contours at the cascade outlet demonstrate that the efficiency benefit is maintained with the use of unsteady forcing.

Toward the Expansion of Low-Pressure-Turbine Airfoil Design Space

Future engine requirements, including high-altitude flight of unmanned air vehicles as well as an impetus to reduce engine cost and weight, are challenging the current state of the art in low-pressure-turbine airfoil design. These new requirements present low-Reynolds number challenges as well as the need for high-performance, high-lift design concepts. Here, we report on an effort to expand the relatively well established aerodynamic design space for low-pressure turbine airfoils through the application of recent developments in transition modeling to airfoil design. Analytical and experimental midspan performance data and predicted loadings are presented for four high-lift airfoil designs based on the Pack B velocity triangles. The new designs represent a systematic expansion of low-pressure turbine airfoil design space through the application of high-lift design concepts for front- and aft-loaded airfoils. All four designs performed as predicted across a range of operationally representative Reynolds numbers. Full-span loss data for the new high-lift designs reveal increased endwall losses, which, with the application of nonaxisymmetric endwall contouring, have been substantially reduced. Taken holistically, the results presented here demonstrate that accurate transition modeling provides a reliable method to develop optimized, very high-lift airfoil designs. However, further improvements in endwall-loss mitigation technologies are required to enable the implementation of the very high-lift technology presented here in engine systems.

Application of Nonaxisymmetric Endwall Contouring to Conventional and High-Lift Turbine Airfoils

Here, we report on the application of nonaxisymmetric endwall contouring to mitigate the endwall losses of one conventional and two high-lift low-pressure turbine airfoil designs. The design methodology presented combines a gradient-based optimization algorithm with a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics (CFD) flow solver to systematically vary a free-form parameterization of the endwall. The ability of the CFD solver employed in this work to predict endwall loss modifications resulting from nonaxisymmetric contouring is demonstrated with previously published data. Based on the validated trend accuracy of the solver for predicting the effects of endwall contouring, the magnitude of predicted viscous losses forms the objective function for the endwall design methodology. This system has subsequently been employed to optimize contours for the conventional-lift Pack B and high-lift Pack D-F and Pack D-A low-pressure turbine airfoil designs. Comparisons between the predicted and measured loss benefits associated with the contouring for Pack D-F design are shown to be in reasonable agreement. Additionally, the predictions and data demonstrate that the Pack D-F endwall contour is effective at reducing losses primarily associated with the passage vortex. However, some deficiencies in predictive capabilities demonstrated here highlight the need for a better understanding of the physics of endwall loss-generation and improved predictive capabilities.