Low Load Density Research Articles

An investigation of combustion of boron suspensions

A steady nitrogen jet transporting fine (0.04∼0.15 μ diameter) boron particles at low loading densities was injected coaxially into the hot combustion products of a flat-flame burner to study the kinetics of boron ignition and combustion. Three types of boron flame-plumes were found: a dark-yellow plume emitting, dark-brown smoke from its tip, at measured maximum flat-flame temperatures below 1800 K; a yellow plume surrounded in its lower part by green emission, between approximately 1800 K and 1900 K; and a bright-yellow plume entirely surrounded by bright-green radiation, above 1900 K. In these patterns, which were independent of the oxygen mole fraction in the product gas, over the range 0.08 to 0.80, the bright yellow was interpreted as boron ignition and the bright green as BO2 emissions from boron combustion products. Based on a theory for a one-step, Arrhenius, ignition process, a theoretical analysis of the jet flow was employed to extract overall, rate parameters from measurements of the height of the yellow plume as a function of the flat-flame temperature. The results were interpreted in terms of existing and new potential models for the ignition and combustion of boron particles.

Flexure of the ocean lithosphere from island uplift, bathymetry and geoid height observations: the Society Islands

In flexure models of the response of the ocean lithosphere to sea-mount loading three key unknowns must generally be considered; the density distribution of the load, the degree of fill-in of the deflection-created moat and the flexural rigidity. The models are usually constrained by one of three types of observations; gravity or geoid height anomalies, the moat and arch geometry and the amount of uplift of islands on this arch. The determination of the model parameters from geoid anomalies is critically dependent on the interpretation of the broad and regional geoid rise that is seen over many of the younger seamount chains and likewise the flexure parameters deduced from the moat and arch geometry are a function of the interpretation of the associated bathymetric swell. The uplift data require that the tectonic, erosional and sea-level history of the region be known, although this requirement can be relaxed if, rather than the uplift relative to sea-level, the change in uplift with distance from the load is used as the observed quantity. All these types of observations have been used in this paper to constrain the flexure model for the Society Islands and while any one data type on its own does not lead to reliable flexure parameters, a consistent solution is found when the three are taken together. The results point to a relatively low load density of 2.5 g cm-3 (apart from a high density core) a moat that is partly filled in with sediment or volcanic debris, and a flexural rigidity of about 3 × 1029 dyne cm.

Chemistry of Detonations. II. Buffered Equilibria

At low loading densities, values of N, M, and Q calculated from the H2O–CO2 “arbitrary” show poor individual agreement with estimates of these quantities from the RUBY computer code. Nevertheless, when substituted into the equation P = 15.58 NM1 / 2Q1 / 2ρ02 they lead to detonation pressures which correspond closely to RUBY predictions. That incorrect input information should yield results which are very nearly “correct” is rationalized on the basis that the equilibria whose shifting engenders the changes in N, M, and Q are “buffered” in the sense that “errors” in N are offset by compensating “errors” in M and Q. As a consequence of the fact that most of the important equilibria in the detonation of C–H–N–O explosives are buffered, calculated (and actual) mechanical properties of detonations appear to be extremely insensitive to exact product compositions. A number of other interesting consequences of these buffered equilibria are discussed.

The detonation of solid explosives: the equilibrium conditions in the detonation wave-front and the adiabatic expansion of the products of detonation

Assuming chemical and thermal equilibrium to be maintained in the detonation wave-front, and using the equation of state in the form of the virial expansion, the velocity of detonation has been determined as a function of the loading density. In the absence of data at sufficiently high pressures and temperatures for the products of detonation of T.N.T., it has been assumed that the virial coefficients are constant and their values have been determined to give agreement with the measured values of the detonation velocity for loading densities less than 1.5 g.cm. -3 . The pressure-volume-temperature relation in the detonation wave-front can then be determined. The pressure in the detonation wave-front is found- to be of the order of 2 x 10 11 dyne cm. -2 for a loading density of 1.5 g.cm. -3 , compared with the value of 9.4 x 10 11 dyne cm. -2 given in the earlier work of other authors using the co-volume method. With the equation of state adopted in this paper it is found that at a high loading density only negligibly small amounts of hydrogen and carbon monoxide are present in the detonation wave-front, a fact which facilitates the calculation of the adiabatic relations in this case. It is shown (part B) that these gases do, however, develop rapidly during the initial stages of the adiabatic expansion. The calculation of the equilibrium conditions in the detonation wave-front with the adopted equation of state (part A) determines the initial conditions for the calculation of the adiabatic relations for a high loading density. The chemical composition of the gases during the adiabatic expansion and the external work done during it have been calculated for a loading density of 1.5 g.cm. -3 (part B). It is shown that the large amount of chemical energy released in the early stages of the expansion is to be correlated with the high effective value of the exponent in the adiabatic in this region, and this is due to the dominant role of the repulsive forces between the molecules of the tightly compressed gases during the early stages of the expansion. The same effect is also observed in the case of a low loading density (part C). The difference with regard to the amounts of hydrogen and carbon monoxide present in the detonation w ave-front for a low loading density complicates the solution of the equations in this case. In part C it is shown how this can be done for a loading density of 1.0 g.cm. -3 , and the detonation velocity and the pressure, density and temperature in the wave-front have been determined using the same equation of state as in parts A and B. The adiabatic pressure-volume relation for the expansion of the products of detonation, and the chemical com position during, and up to the end of, the adiabatic expansion have also been determined. Compared with the results for a high loading density, there is considerably more carbon monoxide and less carbon dioxide and a substantial rise in the total number of moles of gas pro­duced per mole of explosive. The ratio is found to be sensitive to the pressure in the detonation wave-front, from which, by comparison with the observed values of this ratio, independent evidence is obtained for the detonation pressure calculated in part A. The chemical energy released per gram of explosive is less for a loading density of 1.0 g .cm -3 than for a loading density of 1.5 g.cm -3 , and the external work done is also less in the former than in the latter case. The amounts of ammonia and of hydrocyanic acid in chemical equilibrium with the other gases are determined and they are found to be negligibly small. It is concluded that these gases, observed in experiments, are probably formed by catalytic action with the bomb fragments during the cooling period after the adiabatic expansion has been completed. The calculations have been compared with the available experimental data and are in reasonable agreement with it. An explanation is suggested for the observed difference in the composition of the gaseous products of the detonation of T.N.T., initiated at a given loading density, with detonators of different power.