Low Endemic Level Research Articles

Multiple transgressions of Wallace's Line explain diversity of flightless Trigonopterus weevils on Bali.

The fauna of Bali, situated immediately west of Wallace's Line, is supposedly of recent Javanese origin and characterized by low levels of endemicity. In flightless Trigonopterus weevils, however, we find 100% endemism for the eight species here reported for Bali. Phylogeographic analyses show extensive in situ differentiation, including a local radiation of five species. A comprehensive molecular phylogeny and ancestral area reconstruction of Indo-Malayan-Melanesian species reveals a complex colonization pattern, where the three Balinese lineages all arrived from the East, i.e. all of them transgressed Wallace's Line. Although East Java possesses a rich fauna of Trigonopterus, no exchange can be observed with Bali. We assert that the biogeographic picture of Bali has been dominated by the influx of mobile organisms from Java, but different relationships may be discovered when flightless invertebrates are studied. Our results highlight the importance of in-depth analyses of spatial patterns of biodiversity.

Demographic processes drive increases in wildlife disease following population reduction.

Population reduction is often used as a control strategy when managing infectious diseases in wildlife populations in order to reduce host density below a critical threshold. However, population reduction can disrupt existing social and demographic structures leading to changes in observed host behaviour that may result in enhanced disease transmission. Such effects have been observed in several disease systems, notably badgers and bovine tuberculosis. Here we characterise the fundamental properties of disease systems for which such effects undermine the disease control benefits of population reduction.By quantifying the size of response to population reduction in terms of enhanced transmission within a generic non-spatial model, the properties of disease systems in which such effects reduce or even reverse the disease control benefits of population reduction are identified. If population reduction is not sufficiently severe, then enhanced transmission can lead to the counter intuitive perturbation effect, whereby disease levels increase or persist where they would otherwise die out. Perturbation effects are largest for systems with low levels of disease, e.g. low levels of endemicity or emerging disease.Analysis of a stochastic spatial meta-population model of demography and disease dynamics leads to qualitatively similar conclusions. Moreover, enhanced transmission itself is found to arise as an emergent property of density dependent dispersal in such systems. This spatial analysis also shows that, below some threshold, population reduction can rapidly increase the area affected by disease, potentially expanding risks to sympatric species.Our results suggest that the impact of population reduction on social and demographic structures is likely to undermine disease control in many systems, and in severe cases leads to the perturbation effect. Social and demographic mechanisms that enhance transmission following population reduction should therefore be routinely considered when designing control programmes.

Transformation of HIV from pandemic to low-endemic levels: a public health approach to combination prevention

Large declines in HIV incidence have been reported since 2001, and scientific advances in HIV prevention provide strong hope to reduce incidence further. Now is the time to replace the quest for so-called silver bullets with a public health approach to combination prevention that understands that risk is not evenly distributed and that effective interventions can vary by risk profile. Different countries have different microepidemics, with very different levels of transmission and risk groups, changing over time. Therefore, focus should be on high-transmission geographies, people at highest risk for HIV, and the package of interventions that are most likely to have the largest effect in each different microepidemic. Building on the backbone of behaviour change, condom use, and medical male circumcision, as well as expanded use of antiretroviral drugs for infected people and pre-exposure prophylaxis for uninfected people at high risk of infection, it is now possible to consider the prospect of what would be one of the most remarkable achievements in the history of public health: reduction of HIV transmission from a pandemic to low-level endemicity.

Evaluation of the AID TB Resistance Line Probe Assay for Rapid Detection of Genetic Alterations Associated with Drug Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Strains

The rapid accurate detection of drug resistance mutations in Mycobacterium tuberculosis is essential for optimizing the treatment of tuberculosis and limiting the emergence and spread of drug-resistant strains. The TB Resistance line probe assay from Autoimmun Diagnostika GmbH (AID) (Strassburg, Germany) was designed to detect the most prevalent mutations that confer resistance to isoniazid, rifampin, streptomycin, amikacin, capreomycin, fluoroquinolones, and ethambutol. This assay detected resistance mutations in clinical M. tuberculosis isolates from areas with low and high levels of endemicity (Switzerland, n=104; South Africa, n=52) and in selected Mycobacterium bovis BCG 1721 mutant strains (n=5) with 100% accuracy. Subsequently, the line probe assay was shown to be capable of rapid genetic assessment of drug resistance in MGIT broth cultures, the results of which were in 100% agreement with those of DNA sequencing and phenotypic drug susceptibility testing. Finally, the line probe assay was assessed for direct screening of smear-positive clinical specimens. Screening of 98 clinical specimens demonstrated that the test gave interpretable results for >95% of them. Antibiotic resistance mutations detected in the clinical samples were confirmed by DNA sequencing. We conclude that the AID TB Resistance line probe assay is an accurate tool for the rapid detection of resistance mutations in cultured isolates and in smear-positive clinical specimens.

Biodiversidad del fitoplancton de aguas continentales en México

Inland water phytoplankton is represented by 15 000 species worldwide, 1 025 of which are found in Mexico, almost 6.8% of all continental algae, and 33.8% of Mexico´s continental algae. Mexican algae belong mainly to the classes Bacillariophyceae (31.9%), Cyanophyceae (18.24%) and Chlorophyceae (17.4%). Most species are cosmopolitan; others have tropical and nearctic affinities. The best represented species are found in the central and S-SE regions of the country (> 100). Few taxa are found in the N and NE regions (<2). There are no studies or records from 8 northern and 4 central and S-SE states. The discovery of new species in Mexico was made by Europeans and Americans. Mexican scientists started describing species in 1933, but it was not until the late 20th and early 21rst centuries that a larger number of species was described. The survival of this important community in Mexico is threatened by the absence of information on phytoplanktonic algae, a low level of endemism, and the pollution of aquatic environments. Different phytoplankton species have been used as food supplements, antioxidants, for bioremediation and biofuels, but production in Mexico is still very limited.

Offline: How close are we to an AIDS-free world?

At last year's International AIDS Society meeting in Washington, DC, I ran into a friend who once worked at a UN health agency. He was agitated. All the talk at that conference of an AIDS-free generation, getting to zero, the end of AIDS, and a cure was nonsense, irresponsible, and dangerous, he said. Go to parts of Africa and see for yourself if the end of AIDS is anywhere in sight. It is not, and to suggest that it might be is to imply, incorrectly, that the era of AIDS is drawing to a close. If we even suggest that the end of AIDS is within reach, we will give politicians an excuse to be complacent—to stop investing in AIDS research and HIV treatment and prevention programmes. As my friend later wrote to me: “I object to Orwellian news-speak, where the end is not really the end.” What we need, he went on, “is that people get real about what we can achieve with current interventions, and stop saying that the end of AIDS is in sight…The best we can hope for…is low endemic levels”.

Syphilis

In Germany more than 3,500 people become infected with syphilis annually. As elsewhere in Western Europe there is a low level endemicity with a concentration among population subgroups with high rates of partner exchange, such as men who have sex with other men. In Germany after initially reduced numbers of cases, the incidence rate has increased after the turn of the millennium. In 2011 the incidence reached 4.5 cases per 100,000 inhabitants, which is the highest incidence since the introduction of the Infection Protection Act of 2001. Syphilis, like other sexually transmitted infections and diseases with its manifold clinical manifestations and complex diagnostics, is a large global problem for public health systems. The recent resurgence of syphilis presents a challenge for all physicians but particularly for dermatologists and venereologists because the skin and adjacent mucous membranes are initially affected. Rapid diagnosis, differential diagnosis, consequent treatment and monitoring can cure the disease. Prevention of misdiagnosis is essential otherwise severe, sometimes fatal cardiovascular complications, neurosyphilis and transfer to unborn and newborn children can occur. The synergy of syphilis and sexually transmitted human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is of special importance. Syphilis together with genital herpes and other sexually transmitted genital and oral ulcers is an important pacemaker for HIV.

Varied spectrum of clinical presentation and mortality in a prospective registry of visceral leishmaniasis in a low endemicity area of Northern Italy.

BackgroundVisceral Leishmaniasis (VL) is endemic in 88 countries, in areas of relatively low incidence with a relevant proportion of immune suppressed patients clinical presentation, diagnosis and management may present difficulties and pitfalls.MethodsDemographic data, clinical, laboratory features and therapeutic findings were recorded in patients identified by a regional VL disease registry from January 2007 to December 2010.ResultsA total of 55 patients (36 adults mean age 48.7 years, 19 children median age 37.5 months) were observed presenting with 65 episodes. All childen were immunocompetent, whereas adults affected by VL included both immunocompetent (n°17) and immunesuppressed (n°19) patients. The clinical presentation was homogeneous in children with predominance of fever and hepato-splenomegaly. A wider spectrum of clinical presentations was observed in immunocompromised adults. Bone marrow detection of intracellular parasites (Giemsa staining) and serology (IFAT) were the most frequently used diagnostic tools. In addition, detection of urinary antigen was used in adult patients with good specificity (90%). Liposomal amphotericin B was the most frequently prescribed first line drug (98.2% of cases) with 100% clinical cure. VL relapses (n°10) represented a crucial finding: they occurred only in adult patients, mainly in immunocompromised patients (40% of HIV, 22% of non-HIV immunocompromised patients, 5,9% of immunocompetent patients). Furthermore, three deaths with VL were reported, all occurring in relapsing immunocompromised patients accounting for a still high overall mortality in this group (15.8%).ConclusionsThe wide spectrum of clinical presentation in immunesuppresed patients and high recurrence rates still represent a clinical challenge accounting for high mortality. Early clinical identification and satisfactory treatment performance with liposomal amphotericin B are confirmed in areas with low-level endemicity and good clinical standards. VL needs continuing attention in endemic areas where increasing numbers of immunocompromised patients at risk are dwelling.

Timberline meadows along a 1000-km transect in NW North America: species diversity and community patterns

Question The mountains of NW North America are home to natural meadows that cover large areas at the timberline. The vegetation of these meadows has been the topic of few local studies, and little is known of species composition turnover across mountain ranges and along the latitudinal gradient. We sampled and analyzed community composition along a 1000-km gradient to answer the following questions: (1) what are the main community types in timberline meadows; (2) what are the most important abiotic gradients underlying their composition; and (3) how is species diversity related to environmental factors and how does it change along the latitudinal gradient? Location SE and central British Columbia (Canada), NW Montana (USA). Methods We recorded data on cover and presence/absence of vascular plant, bryophyte and lichen species, as well as structure and environmental properties in 4 m × 4 m plots (n = 112). Using the OptimClass approach, we classified plots into distinct community types. We used NMDS and multiple regressions to analyse the relationship between composition, species richness and environmental and geographic gradients. Results Despite drawing from a large geographic area, our classification revealed only four meadow communities. Mesic meadows were the most frequent and had a pronounced species turnover along latitude, resulting in two distinct community types. In addition, a three-dimensional ordination showed that vegetation structural properties, macroclimate and geographic predictors were important underlying gradients for species composition. Vascular species richness increased with soil pH, and exhibited a quadratic relationship with litter cover and latitude. Furthermore, in the latter case, it increased towards the southern and northern ends of our gradient. Conclusions Detection of only four meadow communities along the 1000-km sampling gradient suggests a relatively recently established flora and a lack of regional differentiation consistent with the low level of endemism in the region. Higher vascular species diversity at the northern and southern edges of our gradient may reflect the geographic proximity to areas unglaciated during the Pleistocene, and suggests that areas farthest from the unglaciated edge may be experiencing colonization debt.

Change in Rainfall Drives Malaria Re-Emergence in Anhui Province, China

Malaria is re-emerging in Anhui Province, China after a decade long’ low level of endemicity. The number of human cases has increased rapidly since 2000 and reached its peak in 2006. That year, the malaria cases accounted for 54.5% of total cases in mainland China. However, the spatial and temporal patterns of human cases and factors underlying the re-emergence remain unclear. We established a database containing 20 years’ (1990–2009) records of monthly reported malaria cases and meteorological parameters. Spearman correlations were used to assess the crude association between malaria incidence and meteorological variables, and a polynomial distributed lag (PDL) time-series regression was performed to examine contribution of meteorological factors to malaria transmission in three geographic regions (northern, mid and southern Anhui Province), respectively. Then, a two-year (2008–2009) prediction was performed to validate the PDL model that was created by using the data collected from 1990 to 2007. We found that malaria incidence decreased in Anhui Province in 1990s. However, the incidence has dramatically increased in the north since 2000, while the transmission has remained at a relatively low level in the mid and south. Spearman correlation analyses showed that the monthly incidences of malaria were significantly associated with temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and the multivariate El Niño/Southern Oscillation index with lags of 0–2 months in all three regions. The PDL model revealed that only rainfall with a 1–2 month lag was significantly associated with malaria incidence in all three regions. The model validation showed a high accuracy for the prediction of monthly incidence over a 2-year predictive period. Malaria epidemics showed a high spatial heterogeneity in Anhui Province during the 1990–2009 study periods. The change in rainfall drives the reemergence of malaria in the northern Anhui Province.

Long-term impact of the World Bank Loan Project for schistosomiasis control: a comparison of the spatial distribution of schistosomiasis risk in China.

BackgroundThe World Bank Loan Project (WBLP) for controlling schistosomiasis in China was implemented during 1992–2001. Its short-term impact has been assessed from non-spatial perspective, but its long-term impact remains unclear and a spatial evaluation has not previously been conducted. Here we compared the spatial distribution of schistosomiasis risk using national datasets in the lake and marshland regions from 1999–2001 and 2007–2008 to evaluate the long-term impact of WBLP strategy on China's schistosomiasis burden.Methodology/Principal FindingsA hierarchical Poisson regression model was developed in a Bayesian framework with spatially correlated and uncorrelated heterogeneities at the county-level, modeled using a conditional autoregressive prior structure and a spatially unstructured Gaussian distribution, respectively. There were two important findings from this study. The WBLP strategy was found to have a good short-term impact on schistosomiasis control, but its long-term impact was not ideal. It has successfully reduced the morbidity of schistosomiasis to a low level, but can not contribute further to China's schistosomiasis control because of the current low endemic level. A second finding is that the WBLP strategy could not effectively compress the spatial distribution of schistosomiasis risk. To achieve further reductions in schistosomiasis-affected areas, and for sustainable control, focusing on the intermediate host snail should become the next step to interrupt schistosomiasis transmission within the two most affected regions surrounding the Dongting and Poyang Lakes. Furthermore, in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, the WBLP's morbidity control strategy may need to continue for some time until snails in the upriver provinces have been well controlled.ConclusionIt is difficult to further reduce morbidity due to schistosomiasis using a chemotherapy-based control strategy in the lake and marshland regions of China because of the current low endemic levels of infection. The future control strategy for schistosomiasis should instead focus on a snail-based integrated control strategy to maintain the program achievements and sustainably reduce the burden of schistosomiasis in China.

Trends in notifiable infectious diseases in China: implications for surveillance and population health policy.

This study aimed to analyse trends in notifiable infectious diseases in China, in their historical context. Both English and Chinese literature was searched and diseases were categorised according to the type of disease or transmission route. Temporal trends of morbidity and mortality rates were calculated for eight major infectious diseases types. Strong government commitment to public health responses and improvements in quality of life has led to the eradication or containment of a wide range of infectious diseases in China. The overall infectious diseases burden experienced a dramatic drop during 1975–1995, but since then, it reverted and maintained a gradual upward trend to date. Most notifiable diseases are contained at a low endemic level; however, local small-scale outbreaks remain common. Tuberculosis, as a bacterial infection, has re-emerged since the 1990s and has become prevalent in the country. Sexually transmitted infections are in a rapid, exponential growth phase, spreading from core groups to the general population. Together human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), they account for 39% of all death cases due to infectious diseases in China in 2008. Zoonotic infections, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), rabies and influenza, pose constant threats to Chinese residents and remain the most deadly disease type among the infected individuals. Therefore, second-generation surveillance of behavioural risks or vectors associated with pathogen transmission should be scaled up. It is necessary to implement public health interventions that target HIV and relevant coinfections, address transmission associated with highly mobile populations, and reduce the risk of cross-species transmission of zoonotic pathogens.

Morphology informed by phylogeny reveals unexpected patterns of species differentiation in the aquatic moss Rhynchostegium riparioides s.l.

Bryophyte floras typically exhibit extremely low levels of endemism. The interpretation, that this might reflect taxonomic shortcomings, is tested here for the Macaronesian flora, using the moss species complex of Rhynchostegium riparioides as a model. The deep polyphyly of R. riparioides across its distribution range reveals active differentiation that better corresponds to geographic than morphological differences. Morphometric analyses are, in fact, blurred by a size gradient that accounts for 80% of the variation observed among gametophytic traits. The lack of endemic diversification observed in R. riparioides in Macaronesia weakens the idea that the low rates of endemism observed in the Macaronesian bryophyte flora might solely be explained by taxonomic shortcomings. To the reverse, the striking polyphyly of North American and European lineages of R. riparioides suggests that the similarity between the floras of these continents has been over-emphasized. Discriminant analyses point to the existence of morphological discontinuities among the lineages resolved by the molecular phylogeny. The global rate of error associated to species identification based on morphology (0.23) indicates, however, that intergradation of shape and size characters among species in the group challenges their identification.

Étude de la part du paludisme chez les consultants fébriles et des indices plasmodiques chez des écoliers dans la région du Trarza, République islamique de Mauritanie

A study was performed to appreciate the importance of malaria in the low valley of the Senegal River North Bank in Mauritania. The malaria incidence was assessed among patients visiting the regional hospital of Rosso (Trarza region) for a "presumptive malaria", a diagnosis assigned by the clinicians based on fever and other suggestive symptoms of malaria. The malaria prevalence rate was also measured in schoolchildren. A total of 1431 febrile outpatients were sampled for thick and thin blood films, between December 2004 and March 2005, August and November 2005, and April and July 2006. The average malaria prevalence rate was 2.5% (36/1431). It varied from 0.7% (4/576) for the period from December 2004 to March 2005 to 3.8% (18/475) from August to November 2005 and 2.1% (8/380) from April to July 2006. Of the 1040 school children of 6 to 14 years of age, the average malaria parasite prevalence rate was 0.9% (9/1040). It was 0.4% (1/224), 1.7% (7/413) and 0.2% (1/402), Respectively, in February 2004 (cold and dry season), October 2005 (rainy season) and June 2006 (hot and dry season). These very low levels of malaria endemicity and incidence are comparable with those recorded in the same area on the (South) bank of the river in Senegal. In this context of unstable malaria, characterized by the absence or a low level of natural immunity of the population, an effective monitoring is essential for an early detection and a damming up of the malaria epidemic blazes that likely occur.

Hepatitis A virus seroprevalence by age and world region, 1990 and 2005

Objective To estimate current age-specific rates of immunity to hepatitis A virus (HAV) in world regions by conducting a systematic review and meta-analysis of published data. The estimation of the global burden of hepatitis A and policies for public health control are dependent on an understanding of the changing epidemiology of this viral infection. Methods Age-specific IgG anti-HAV seroprevalence data from more than 500 published articles were pooled and used to fit estimated age-seroprevalence curves in 1990 and 2005 for each of 21 world regions (as defined by the Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study). Findings High-income regions (Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Singapore) have very low HAV endemicity levels and a high proportion of susceptible adults, low-income regions (sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia) have high endemicity levels and almost no susceptible adolescents and adults, and most middle-income regions have a mix of intermediate and low endemicity levels. Conclusion Anti-HAV prevalence estimates in this analysis suggest that middle-income regions in Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East currently have an intermediate or low level of endemicity. The countries in these regions may have an increasing burden of disease from hepatitis A, and may benefit from new or expanded vaccination programs.

Ultramafic soils and species sorting in the flora of New Caledonia

Summary1. Island floras are generally characterized by disharmony due to uneven representations of plant groups. This has usually been explained by the unequal capacity of plants to disperse and colonize islands, but it has been suggested that the ecology of the recipient islands may also be important.2. We investigated the phylogenetic structure of the flora of New Caledonia, a biodiversity hotspot in the South‐West Pacific, to examine the phylogenetic pattern of a disharmonic flora and to test two competing hypotheses: disharmony due to uneven dispersability versus disharmony due to uneven ability to adapt to the ultramafic soils that are widespread on the archipelago and constrain plant growth.3. Dispersal did not seem to be a significant factor as plant families with low levels of endemism and thus high effective dispersal capacities tended to be under‐represented.4. We identified several clusters of over‐represented families, such as the COM clade (Celastrales, Oxalidales and Malpighiales), in which nickel hyperaccumulation (a syndrome associated with ultramafic soils) was particularly common. We indeed found a positive association between hyperaccumulation and over‐representation. Therefore, ultramafic soils may have been a major force for species sorting in the flora of New Caledonia.5. Because we think that most colonizers were naïve to ultramafic soils before they reached the archipelago, the over‐represented groups in New Caledonia may have possessed an exaptation to ultramafic soils, which has facilitated their settlement and diversification.6. Synthesis. This study supports that beyond dispersal, ecology is an important factor in determining the success of different plant groups to colonize an island. In the case of New Caledonia, exaptation to ultramafic soils is likely a primary cause of ecological filtering.

The ghosts of Gondwana and Laurasia in modern liverwort distributions

Recent advances in phylogenetics and, in particular, molecular dating, indicate that transoceanic dispersal has played an important role in shaping plant and animal distributions, obscuring any effect of tectonic history. Taxonomic sampling in biogeographic studies is, however, systematically biased towards vertebrates and higher plants and the possibility remains that a much stronger signature of ancient vicariance might be evident among other organisms, particularly among basal land plants. Here, an explicit Bayesian model-based approach was used to investigate global-scale biogeographic patterns among liverwort genera and to determine whether the patterns identified are consistent with the expectations of vicariance or dispersal scenarios. The distribution of each genus was mapped onto the phylograms describing the floristic affinities among areas in order to define the synapomorphic transitions supporting the observed groupings. The probabilities of change in a branch were calculated by implementing the Markov model of BayesTraits. The consistent ambiguity in ancestral state reconstructions returned by the unconstrained, two-rate model indicated that the overall signal in the data was weak, leading us to test the performance of competing, explicit models. The analyses resolved clades of geographic areas that are mostly consistent with the kingdoms traditionally identified for plants and animals, but with strikingly lower rates of endemism. The major split observed in the phylograms is into almost entirely Laurasian and Gondwanan clades. Other patterns recovered by the analyses, including Wallace's line and the South Atlantic Disjunction, have also traditionally been interpreted in terms of vicariance. These observations contrast with the idea that, in spore-dispersed organisms like bryophytes and pteridophytes, dispersal obscures evidence of vicariance. However, some discrepancies between the liverwort trees and expectations from a continental drift scenario were observed, such as the sister-group relationship of the Australian and New Zealand floras, which is supported by the co-occurrence of many genera, often endemic to these two areas. Together with an interpretation of the results within a phylogenetic context, our analyses suggest that patterns, which are at first sight consistent with an ancient vicariance hypothesis, may, in fact, conceal a complex mixture of relictual distributions and more recent, asymmetrical dispersal events. Our results provide a framework for testing specific evolutionary hypotheses concerning the extremely low levels of endemism in bryophytes and in particular, the significance of dispersal and cryptic diversification.

Seed Plant Endemism on Hainan Island: A Framework for Conservation Actions

Hainan, the second largest island of China, has the most extensive and best preserved tropical forests of this country. A network of 68 protected areas (54 of them are terrestrial) provides in situ conservation for the unique ecosystems of the island. We: (1) discuss an updated check-list of seed-plant species that are endemic to Hainan, (2) evaluate the extent to which the endemic flora has been the subject of molecular studies, and (3) investigate the conservation status of these species. We recognize 397 endemic species on the island, 271 of which are reported in the protected areas, and 144 of which have been Red-Listed (85 assigned to the Critically Endangered (40) or Endangered (45) IUCN categories). The families with the highest number of endemics are Rubiaceae (33 species), Lauraceae (27 species), and Poaceae (26 species). The island has only seven endemic genera, all of which are unispecific. Compared with other tropical islands, Hainan has a low number of endemics but our preliminary observations suggest that the island has a highly disharmonic flora when compared with that from the mainland. Nevertheless, most of the major clades of the seed-plant tree of life with representatives in China also have endemic species on the island. We argue that the low levels of endemism reflect the continental nature of Hainan and the fact that several areas of the island have not been fully inventoried. We were unable to find a single molecular systematic study focusing exclusively on the Hainan endemics; however, 24 of the endemic species have been included in phylogenetic studies targeting particular genera or families. Future research/conservation actions for the endemic flora of Hainan should focus in developing: (1) a red-list that assesses all 397 endemic species, (2) comprehensive floristic studies for the protected areas, (3) molecular phylogenetic and conservation genetic studies with a primary focus on the endemics, (4) studies to understand what ecological interactions are important in the biology of the endemic species, and (5) eco-geographical studies to identify Important Biodiversity Zones of endemism within Hainan and therefore potential new protected areas.

Can ‘search and destroy’ reduce nosocomial meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an Irish hospital?

In Ireland, the Department of Health and Children recommends admission screening of patients at increased risk of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), isolation of these patients until proven negative, and eradication of any MRSA identified. These actions form the basis of a programme called 'search and destroy' that has successfully reduced MRSA in Scandinavia. There is, however, very little information published on the use of search and destroy in Ireland. This study was carried out using a quantitative, quasi-experimental design in the form of an interventional cohort study. The effect of reducing the turnaround time for MRSA results (2007) and the introduction of pre-emptive isolation (2008) was examined in a hospital with an established admission screening programme for MRSA. Rates of MRSA infection and colonisation were monitored post-intervention and compared to baseline rates prior to the intervention (2005-2006). Rates of hospital-acquired (nosocomial) MRSA infections and colonisation fell in both 2007 and 2008. However, due to the quasi-experimental design of the study and the low endemic level of MRSA in the hospital, a causal link could not be established.

Population genetic structure of the Daubenton’s bat (Myotis daubentonii) in western Europe and the associated occurrence of rabies

The Daubenton’s bat is widespread and common in the UK and countries bordering the English Channel and North Sea. European bat lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2), a rabies virus, has been detected in Daubenton’s bats in the UK and continental Europe. Investigating the relatedness of colonies and gene flow between these regions would allow regional estimates of the movement of Daubenton’s bats and thus the potential for disease transmission. The genetic structure of the Daubenton’s bat in western Europe was investigated by analysing variability at eight microsatellite loci. Genetic diversity was found to be high at all sites (H E = 0.73–0.84), with little differentiation between bats sampled in the UK and continental Europe. Mantel tests indicated a significant correlation between geographic distance and pair-wise F ST (P = 0.000), between colonies sampled in Scotland and northern England. However, this was not continuous throughout the sampled range, with evidence of panmixia within the area sampled in continental Europe. Assignment tests show no evidence that the (potential) EBLV-2 sero-positive and virus positive bats were more likely to have originated from the continental rather than UK populations. There is no sufficient significant genetic differentiation amongst most UK and continental colonies to conclude that EBLV-2 is maintained in the UK by immigration. Results show that it is likely to be maintained at a low endemic level within the UK. The relative genetic uniformity of UK and continental populations implies that there is no migration barrier to EBLV-2, between these regions.