Low-cost Process Research Articles

Expediting adenovirus titer assays via an algorithmic live-cell imaging technique

Interest in virus-based therapeutics for the treatment of genetic and oncolytic diseases has created a demand for high-yield, low-cost virus-manufacturing processes. However, traditional analytical methods of assessing infectious virus titer require multiple processing steps and manual counting, limiting sample throughput, and increasing human error. This bottleneck severely limits the development of new manufacturing unit operations to drive down costs. In this work, we utilize an Incucyte Live-Cell Analysis System to develop a high-throughput infectious titer assay for adenovirus expressing a GFP-transgene. Although previous studies have demonstrated live-cell imaging’s potential for use with other viruses, they provide little guidance regarding the selection of the viewing and analysis parameters. To fill this gap, we develop an algorithmic approach to identify the optimum viewing and analysis parameters and create a statistical workflow for quantifying infectious adenovirus in a sample dilution series in a standard 24-well microplate. The developed assay is comparable to Hexon staining, the gold-standard for adenovirus infectious titer, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.9. Finally, the developed algorithmic approach and statistical workflow were applied to create an assay for adenovirus titer using a 96-well microplate, allowing five times more samples to be quantified compared to the standard 24-well plate. While this assay uses a GFP-insert that precludes its use in a clinical environment, the key learnings surrounding the careful use of viewing and analysis parameters, and the statistical workflow are widely applicable to implementing life-cell imaging for dilution-series-based assays. Moreover, this method directly enables the fast and accurate evaluation of virus samples in a preclinical environment.

Additive-assisted passivating manipulation for printable carbon-based CsPbBr3 perovskite quantum dots solar cells with stacked structure

Carbon-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted attention as low-cost and facile fabrication process. However, the ionic nature of perovskite and nonradiative recombination at perovskite/carbon interface are present inevitable obstacles in approaching their highly efficiency. Herein, the multifunctional molecules of zinc oxalate is implanted into the precursor of perovskite to passivate defects and narrowing the interface energy barrier, and a flexible method of screen-printing employed in prepare stacked structure device ITO/SnO2/CsPbBr3•x % ZnOX //CQDs/ITO. In this regard, CQDs are used as carbon electrodes to replace expensive materials of hole transport layer and precious metal electrode, in which CQDs extracted from sugarcane molasses, a cheap by-product of native sugar industry. Additionally, the stacked structure composed of a photoanode (ITO/SnO2/CsPbBr3•x % ZnOX) and back electrode (CQDs/ITO) exhibits a promising prospect in photovoltaic application. Finally, the power conversion efficiency of 2 % ZnOX modified PSCs increases to 1.96 %, and the improvement rate has reached 1.54 times. In addition, modified PSCs with a greater stability compared with that of the control device. This work presents a useful approach to passivate defects and provides a cost-effective option to fabricate devices with stacked structure.

In-Situ Surface Repair of FAPbBr3 Quantum Dots toward High-Performance Pure-Green Perovskite Light-Emitting Diodes.

Metal halide perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) are ideal for high-resolution displays due to their tunable emission, narrow spectra, and low-cost processing. Colloidal FAPbBr3 perovskite quantum dots (PeQDs) enhance radiative recombination, making them efficient for pure-green PeLEDs. However, their low stability and surface defects limit their practical application. Here, we address these challenges by proposing an in situ surface repair strategy using benzhydroxamic acid (BHA) as a modifier. We demonstrated that BHA can coordinate with Pb2+ ions and form hydrogen bonds with FA+ and halide ions, effectively reducing nonradiative recombination and maintaining the integrity of the PeQDs. High-quality FAPbBr3 PeQDs with a photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) of up to 92.5% were achieved, leading to pure-green PeLEDs with an external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 24.8% and a maximum luminance of 40,231 cd m-2, providing a feasible and promising perspective for advanced solid-state lighting and displays.

Beneficial utilization of ball-milled carbon sand to activate peroxymonosulfate oxidation: Quantitation of ROS using probe-based kinetic models and mechanism insights

In this study, the oil sand was treated with an integrated process of pyrolysis and ball milling, and the obtained ball-milled carbon sand (BMCS) was utilized as peroxymonosulfate (PMS) activator to treat wastewater containing aniline (AN). Quenching experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) confirmed the existence of sulfate radical (SO4∙‐), hydroxyl radical (·OH) and singlet oxygen (O12) in the BMCS/PMS system. A probe-based kinetic model was constructed to describe the degradation process of pollutants in the BMCS/PMS system, quantified the exposure of each reactive oxygen species and their contributions to AN degradation. BMCS activated PMS to quickly produce SO4∙‐ and gradually generate ·OH. The O12 exposure showed a rapid increasing trend and the largest total exposure, while its contribution to AN degradation was small. Ball milling time and BMCS dosage demonstrated significant effect on the exposure of ·OH and O12. The main active sites for BMCS to activate PMS were iron oxides, defective carbon and oxygen-containing functional groups. This study provides a green and low-cost process for value-added transformation of pyrolytic residue of oil sand (PROS), so as to promote PROS treatment mode from harmless disposal to resource utilization.

Saccharification of fructans and simultaneous alcoholic fermentation for sustainable production of agave distillates

ABSTRACT In a world where climate change and sustainability are at the forefront, innovative solutions are more pressing than ever. In the production process of distillates, the critical stage is the cooking of agave for thermal hydrolysis of fructans. This stage determines the efficiency of the process, incurs the highest production cost, and has a detrimental impact on the environment. In this study, we investigate the saccharification of agave fructans in fresh juice using fructanases produced in situ by Kluyveromyces marxianus as an alternative to traditional agave cooking. furthermore, we explore both sequential and simultaneous alcoholic fermentation processes using a native mixed culture to improve the overall yield and obtain a distillate with enjoyable sensory characteristics. The results show that saccharification and simultaneous fermentation allow for obtaining a fermented product containing an average of 7% alcohol. Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis shows that the distillate is essentially an ethanol – water mixture with a broad profile and high concentration of volatile compounds. The composition of the distilled product provides a well-balanced sensory experience that is highly valued by consumers. Hence, for the first time, a novel, efficient, low-cost, and sustainable process for producing agave distillates has been successfully designed.

Pollen-based natural nanostructures to realize nanoplasmonic biochips for single-molecule detection

In this work, a paradigm change in the development of the plasmonic-based bio/chemical sensing approaches is presented. The proposed idea is to use natural nanostructures instead of those fabricated by electron-beam lithography (EBL) tools. This sensing approach produces several advantages, such as high performances without an optimization step and a simple, low-cost, and eco-friendly production process with respect to other methods, which are still time-consuming with low scalability. In particular, pollen's nanostructures covered by gold nanofilms are used to realize gold nanogratings (GNG), similar to those made via EBL, to excite hybrid plasmonic phenomena. Bulk and binding sensitivities are evaluated and compared to nanoplasmonic sensors, particularly those achieved via an EBL-based chip. As proof of principle, an estrogen receptor (ERα) is immobilized on the plasmonic nanostructured surfaces of both EBL-based and pollen-based chips and interrogated by the same custom 3D-printed holder through a transmission-based experimental setup, exploiting polymer optical fibers (POFs). The experimental results demonstrate that the proposed pollen-based nanoplasmonic biosensor shows performance very similar to an EBL-based nanoplasmonic biosensor, indicating the equivalence between the two nanoplasmonic biosensors. The biosensor exhibited a detection limit better than 1 aM for the estradiol, demonstrating the capabilities of the proposed sensing approach towards single-molecule detection.

Low-cost and simple PCR process for access to molecular diagnosis of HTLV-1/2 in low-resource countries

BackgroundHTLV-1/2 exhibit a widespread distribution globally and are associated with severe clinical manifestations, necessitating precise viral identification for diagnosis. Currently, there are no official diagnostic guidelines, and a variety of published protocols exists. We introduce an enhanced nested real-time PCR technique followed by high-resolution melting (rtPCR-HRM), designed to offer a cost-effective and straightforward tool for the simultaneous identification of both viruses. MethodsThe technique was tested in a retrospective, blinded study, involving a total panel of 110 samples, of which 47 were positive for HTLV-1, 12 for HTLV-2, and 51 tested negatives. Additionally, we compared the performance of this technique with a line immunoassay (LIA). ResultsThe results demonstrate 100 % sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic accuracy for both viruses. Sensitivity analysis indicated that at least 1 viral copy of HTLV-1 and 14.4 viral copies of HTLV-2 could be reliably detected. ConclusionsOur results indicate that rtPCR-HRM is effective in confirming HTLV-1 and HTLV-2 infection, important in Latin American countries where both viruses circulate. Furthermore, the proposed strategy provides a new tool that can be used to resolve indeterminate cases identified by Western blot, with the added advantage of being faster and simpler than n-PCR and more cost-effective than other probe-based RT-PCRs.

Production and concentration of keratinases and application of fermentation residual in removing hexavalent chromium.

The production of keratinases was evaluated in submerged fermentation with Aspergillus niger and by pigs' swine hair in a batch bioreactor. Experimental planning was performed to assess the interaction between different variables. The enzyme extract produced was characterized at various pH and temperatures and subjected to enzyme concentration using a biphasic aqueous system and salt/solvent precipitation techniques. In addition, the substrate's potential in reducing hexavalent chromium from synthetic potassium dichromate effluent with an initial concentration of 20mg L-1 of chromium was evaluated. The resulting enzyme extract showed 89 ± 2 U mL-1 of keratinase. The enzyme concentration resulted in a purification factor of 1.3, while sodium chloride/acetone and ammonium sulfate/acetone resulted in a purification factor of 1.9 and 1.4, respectively. Still using the residual substrate of swine hair from the fermentation, a 94% reduction of hexavalent chromium concentration occurred after 9h of reaction. Thus, the study proved relevant for producing keratinases, with further environmental applicability and the possibility of concentrating the extract via low-cost processes.

Design and Manufacturing of Dielectric Resonators via 3D Printing of Composite Polymer/Ceramic Filaments.

Rapid technological advancements in recent years have opened the door to innovative solutions in the field of telecommunications and wireless systems; thus, new materials and manufacturing methods have been explored to satisfy this demand. This paper aims to explore the application of low-cost, commercially available 3D-printed ceramic/polymer composite filaments to design dielectric resonators (DRs) and check their suitability for use in high-frequency applications. Three-dimensional printing was used to fabricate the three-dimensional dielectric resonant prototypes. The filaments were characterized in terms of their thermal and mechanical properties and quality of printability. Additionally, the filaments' dielectric properties were analyzed, and the prototypes were designed and simulated for a target frequency of ~2.45 GHz. Afterward, the DRs were successfully manufactured using the 3D printing technique, and no post-processing techniques were used in this study. A simple and efficient feeding method was used to finalize the devices, while the printed DRs' reflection coefficient (S11) was measured. Results on prototype size, manufacture ease, printability, cost per volume, and bandwidth (BW) were used to evaluate the materials' suitability for high-frequency applications. This research presents an easy and low-cost manufacturing process for DRs, opening a wide range of new applications and revolutionizing the manufacturing of 3D-printed high-frequency devices.

Processing of molybdenum industrial waste into sustainable and efficient nanocatalysts for water electrolysis reactions

The increasing need for sustainable energy and the transition from a linear to a circular economy pose great challenges to the materials science community. In this view, the chance of producing efficient nanocatalysts for water splitting using industrial waste as starting material is attractive. Here, we report low-cost processes to convert Mo-based industrial waste powder into efficient catalysts for oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). pH controlled hydrothermal processing of Mo-based industrial waste powder leads to pure orthorhombic MoO3 nanobelts (50–200 nm wide, 10 µm long) with promising OER performances at 10 mA·cm−2 with an overpotential of 324 mV and Tafel slope of 45 mV·dec−1 in alkaline electrolyte. Indeed, MoS2/MoO3 nanostructures were obtained after sulfurization during hydrothermal processes of the MoO3 nanobelts. HER tests in acidic environment show a promising overpotential of 208 mV at 10 mA·cm−2 and a Tafel slope of 94 mV·dec−1. OER and HER performances of nanocatalysts obtained from Mo industrial waste powder are comparable or better than Mo-based nanocatalysts obtained from pure commercial Mo reagent. This work shows the great potential of reusing industrial waste for energy applications, opening a promising road to join waste management and efficient and sustainable nanocatalysts for water splitting.

Superoxide radical derived metal-free spiro-OMeTAD for highly stable perovskite solar cells

Lithium salt-doped spiro-OMeTAD is widely used as a hole-transport layer (HTL) for high-efficiency n-i-p perovskite solar cells (PSCs), but unfortunately facing awkward instability for commercialization arising from the intrinsic Li+ migration and hygroscopicity. We herein demonstrate a superoxide radicals (•O2−) derived HTL of metal-free spiro-OMeTAD with remarkable capability of avoiding the conventional tedious oxidation treatment in air for highly stable PSCs. Present work explores the employing of variant-valence Eu(TFSI)2 salts that could generate •O2− for facile and adequate pre-oxidation of spiro-OMeTAD, resulting in the HTL with dramatically increased conductivity and work function. Comparing to devices adopting HTL with LiTFSI doping, the •O2−-derived spiro-OMeTAD increases the PSCs efficiency up to 25.45% and 20.76% for 0.05 cm2 active area and 6 × 6 cm2 module, respectively. State-of-art PSCs employing such metal-free HTLs are also demonstrated to show much-improved environmental stability even under harsh conditions, e.g., maintaining over 90% of their initial efficiency after 1000 h of operation at the maximum power point and after 80 light-thermal cycles under simulated low earth orbit conditions, respectively, indicating the potentials of developing metal-free spiro-OMeTAD for low-cost and shortened processing of perovskite photovoltaics.

Nonconjugated Polyurethane Derivatives with Aggregation-Induced Luminochromism for Multicolor and White Photoluminescent Films.

A simple and effective strategy to obtain solid-state multicolor emitting materials is a particularly attractive topic. Nonconventional/nonconjugated polymers are receiving widespread attention because of their advantages of rich structural diversity, low cost, and good processability. However, it is difficult to control the molecular conformation or to obtain the crystal structure of amorphous molecules, which means it is a challenge to obtain nontraditional polymeric materials with multicolor emission. In this work, a polyurethane derivative (PUH) with red-shifted emission was synthesized by a simple one-pot polymerization reaction. By exploiting the aggregation-induced luminochromism of PUH, a series of plastic films with tunable emission from blue to orange, and white-light emission, was obtained by doping different amounts of PUH into poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), thereby changing the aggregation degree of PUH. This work demonstrates the excellent promise of polyurethane derivatives for the simple fabrication of large-scale flexible luminescent films.

Unlocking the potential of low-melting-point alloys integrated extrusion additive manufacturing: insights into mechanical behavior, energy absorption, and electrical conductivity

AbstractAdditive manufacturing is a commonly used manufacturing method in complex part fabrication, instant assemblies, part consolidation, mass customization and personalization, on-demand manufacturing, lightweight, and topological optimization due to its advantage of lower costs, flexibility to learn and use, reduced raw material wastage, digital design integration, high efficiency, environmental-friendliness. However, the current metal 3D printing, which is mainly fabricated layer by layer using laser, is expensive to manufacture metal parts. Therefore, in this paper, a low-cost high-quality metal manufacturing process called low-melting-point alloys (LMPAs) integrated extrusion additive manufacturing will be examined. This manufacturing process can fabricate complex metal structures and integrated circuits with simple fused deposition modeling, which is a cost-effective method for producing these objects. LMPAs with different melting points are used for performance comparison to find out the optimized mechanical behavior, energy absorption properties, and electrical conductivity. Our investigation into LMPAs integrated extrusion additive manufacturing has revealed significant findings. Tensile tests conducted on LMPAs with varying melting points have illuminated distinct mechanical behaviors. Notably, lower melting points contribute to increased ductility but reduced stiffness, while higher melting points result in greater stiffness but diminished ductility. These results emphasize the importance of tailoring LMPA selection based on specific application requirements. Furthermore, our examination of lattice and triply periodic minimal surface structures has demonstrated consistent energy absorption properties across different manufacturing temperatures, highlighting the adaptability and versatility of LMPAs for energy absorption applications. Additionally, our electrical conductivity assessments have shown that LMPAs with melting points of $${{47}^{\circ }C}$$ 47 ∘ C and $${{120}^{\circ }}\hbox {C}$$ 120 ∘ C exhibit higher electrical conductivity, making them suitable for applications requiring good electrical conduction properties. These findings collectively underscore the significance of LMPAs in additive manufacturing, offering valuable insights for material selection and applications in various domains.

Plasmonic perovskite photodetector with high photocurrent and low dark current mediated by Au NR/PEIE hybrid layer

Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite photodetectors have gained significant attention due to their superior potential for optoelectronic applications, offering various advantages such as low-cost processing, high charge carrier mobility, and lightweight properties. However, these perovskite photodetectors exhibit relatively low absorption in the near-infrared (NIR) range, which limits their potential applications. Here, to address this challenge, the integration of gold nanorods (Au NRs) utilizing localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects in the NIR range has been developed, leading to enhanced light absorption in the active region and higher photocurrent generation. Additionally, ∼7.9 nm of thin polyethyleneimine ethoxylated (PEIE) interlayers were incorporated into the Au NR photodetectors, suppressing dark current by blocking charge injection. As a result, the synergistic effect of the Au NR/PEIE hybrid layer has led to a high-performance photodetector with a responsivity of 0.360 A/W and a detectivity of 1.81 × 1010 Jones, demonstrating a noticeable enhancement compared to the control device. Finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations, morphological characterizations, and photoluminescence studies further support the mechanism for enhancing the performance of the device. We believe that our plasmon-enhanced protocol holds strong potential as a promising platform for perovskite optoelectronic devices.

Advancements and Challenges of Vacuum‐Processed Organic Photodiodes: A Comprehensive Review

Organic photodiodes (OPDs) have made remarkable strides and now poised to surpass traditional silicon photodiodes (PDs) in various aspects including linear dynamic range (LDR), detectivity, wavelength selectivity, and versatility.[1] Tunable mechanical and optoelectronic properties of organic semiconductors, coupled with lower process costs, have propelled OPDs into the spotlight across fields such as wearable light fidelity systems, flexible image sensors, and biomedical imaging.[2–5] While most advanced organic imaging systems to date rely on polymer‐based solution processes, challenges such as the use of toxic organic solvents and reproducibility issues hinder their commercialization.[6,7] Vacuum‐processed OPDs offer a promising alternative, boasting eco‐friendliness and compatibility with large‐scale fabrication facilities.[8,9] In this review, recent advancements and challenges in vacuum‐processed OPDs, an area that has received less attention compared to solution‐processed counterparts, are explored. Herein, four primary pathways for development of vacuum‐processed OPDs are outlined: 1) ultraviolet‐selective OPDs, 2) visible‐light‐selective OPDs, 3) near‐infrared or short‐wave‐infrared‐sensitive OPDs, and 4) addressing challenges such as higher noise currents compared to inorganic PDs. In this review, it is aimed to furnish readers with a comprehensive understanding of vacuum‐processed OPDs, spanning from materials design to device engineering.

Influence of the Dispersion of Carbon Nanotubes on the Electrical Conductivity, Adhesion Strength, and Corrosion Resistance of Waterborne Polyurethane Composites

Due to the presence of many flammable substances in the working environments of the petrochemical industry, anticorrosive conductive coatings need to be used on metal equipment to avoid safety accidents like fires. However, existing conductive solvent-based coatings are volatile when exposed to flammable and toxic organic solvents. Thus, in this work, a series of eco-friendly anticorrosive waterborne polyurethane (WPU) composites with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were prepared via a low-cost and practical process; the dispersion of MWCNTs was revealed when present in different amounts, and the mechanism behind the conduction of WPU composites was determined. We concluded that low amounts of MWCNTs were well dispersed, generating a conductive network, and the WPU composite was not entirely covered by the MWCNT particles, so the electrical conductivity in certain parts of the coating was good. When the content of MWCNTs was excessive, some stretched MWCNTs dispersed to the top of the composite and many MWCNTs agglomerated at the bottom. Additionally, when the content of MWCNTs was increased, the electrical conductivity, corrosion resistance, and adhesion strength of the WPU composite decreased. Our results could provide a theoretical foundation for the preparation of anticorrosive conductive waterborne composites for protecting equipment in the petrochemical industry.

Optimization of Black Nickel Coatings’ Electrodeposit onto Steel

Coatings can be created using various technologies and serve different roles, including protection, functionality, and decorative purposes. Among these technologies, electrodeposition has emerged as a low-cost, versatile, and straightforward process with remarkable scalability and manufacturability. Nickel, extensively studied in the context of electrodeposition, has many applications ranging from decorative to functional. The main objective of the present work is the electrodeposition of double-layer nickel coatings, consisting of a bright nickel pre-coating followed by a black nickel layer with enhanced properties, onto steel substrates. The influence of deposition parameters on colour, morphology, adhesion, roughness, and coefficient of friction was studied. The effects of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and WS2 nanoparticles on the coatings’ properties and performance were also investigated. Additionally, the influence of the steel substrate’s pre-treatment, consisting of immersion in an HCl solution, prior to the electrodeposition, to etch the surface and activate it, was evaluated and optimized. The characterization of the pre-coating revealed a homogeneous surface with a medium superficial feature of 2.56 μm. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) results showed a high content of Ni, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed its crystallinity. In contrast, the black films’ characterization revealed their amorphous nature. The BN10 sample, which corresponds to a black nickel layer with a deposition time of 10 min, showed the best results for colour and roughness, presenting the lowest brightness (L*) value (closest to absolute black) and the most homogeneous roughness. EDS analysis confirmed the incorporation of WS2, but all samples with CTAB exhibited signs of corrosion and cracks, along with higher coefficient of friction (COF) values.

Study on the Refining Behavior of Al-Si Alloys Doped with Al-Ti-C Intermediate Alloys at Different B Doping Temperatures

In this paper, a novel Al-5Ti-0.3C-0.2B intermediate alloy with an efficient refining effect on Al-Si alloys by a low-cost and high-performance fabrication process is developed. The results show that the addition of only 0.15 wt.% of Al-5Ti-0.3C-0.2B intermediate alloy is able to refine the average grain size of Al-Si alloys to 120 ± 5 μm, which is 28.7% higher than the reference value of 0.2 wt.% addition. Additionally, TiAl3 in bulk form has a faster response and more stable refinement than TiAl3 in needle form. The blocky TiAl3 generated at low temperature will turn acicular or elongated as the temperature increases, slowing the response speed and increasing the time required to achieve the ideal refinement effect. We are convinced that this work will provide a reference for developing new aluminum alloy refinement intermediate alloys.

Investigating the optical and electrical performance of rod coated silver nanowire-based transparent conducting films

Silver nanowires (Ag NWs) are highly promising building blocks for developing transparent conducting films (TCFs) due to their high electrical conductivity and good optical transparency. The large-scale production of Ag NW-based high-quality TCFs using low-cost processing methods can replace the traditional oxide based TCFs. Therefore, developing a reliable technique for large-scale fabrication of Ag NW-based TCFs is vital. This work involves the synthesis of Ag NWs, the fabrication of large-area Ag NW-based TCFs using a simple rod coating process, its optimization, and the performance analysis of the fabricated TCFs, including their demonstration as transparent heaters. The polyol synthesis method produces Ag NWs of lengths ranging from 25-110µm and diameters from 80-180 nm. The effect of Ag NW length, the number of coating passes, and the volume of the NW dispersion used per coating pass on the electrical and optical properties of the TCFs are studied by quantifying sheet resistance(Rs)and transmittance (T) of the film. The performance of the fabricated film is evaluated by estimating the figure of merit (FoM) in both percolative and bulk regimes. The TCF made with NWs of length 25.7µm and diameter 85.1 nm had the largest value of bulk FoM (101.3), percolative FoM (43.9), and, conductivity exponent (0.6). This elucidated the superior performance of the fabricated TCFs over those fabricated by other techniques. The critical thickness of the film (tmin), at the crossover between the percolation and bulk, scales with the shortest dimension of the NW, namely its diameter. The percolative FoM showed an increase, with a decrease in both sheet resistance and diameter of the NWs, with lowern. The fabricated TCF is tested as a transparent heater and the demonstration proves that rod coated Ag NW-based TCFs can be used for transparent electrode applications.

Introducing a Dilute Single Bath for the Electrodeposition of Cu2(ZnSn)(S)4 for Smooth Layers

Cu2(ZnSn)(S)4 (copper, zinc, tin, and sulfide (CZTS)) provides possible advantages over CuInGaSe2 for thin-film photovoltaic devices because it has a higher band gap. Preparing CZTS by electrodeposition because of its high productivity and lower processing costs, electroplating is appealing. Recently published studies reported that the electrodeposition process of CZTS still faces significant obstacles, such as the sulfur atomic ratio (about half of the whole alloy), deposits’ adhesion, film quality, and optical properties. This work introduces an improved bath that facilitates the direct electroplating of CZTS from one processing step. The precursors used were significantly more diluted than the typical baths mentioned in the last few years. An extensive analysis of the electrochemical behavior at various rotation speeds is presented at room temperature (~22 °C). The deposited alloy’s composition and adherence to the molybdenum back contact are examined with agitation. The annealing process was carried out in an environment containing sulfur, and the metal was not added at this stage. The ultimate sulfur composition was adjusted to 50.2%, about the desired atomic ratio. The compound’s final composition was investigated using the Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy technique. Finally, X-ray diffraction analysis was applied to analyze CZTS crystallography and to measure thickness.