The Iraqi oil and gas law was not born of chance with the discovery of oil. Rather, it was a logical consequence of the historical development of oil and gas law and the obstacles it encountered, the most important of which was the sovereignty issue, which we addressed in the introduction to this research. The licensing method and the effectiveness of administrative oversight in granting these sensitive contracts were the basis for approval. The oil sector in Iraq is considered one of the primary economic resources that contribute significantly to the economy. The legal framework for oil extraction contracts is a pivotal element in ensuring national benefit. To regulate this vital sector, oil operations are managed in a legally and transparent manner. These contracts aim to define the relationship between the Iraqi government and local and international companies, ensuring the preservation of the state's rights to its natural resources and providing an investment environment that encourages partnerships with international companies. This legal framework presents significant challenges, as it requires coordination between the various stakeholders, in addition to balancing economic and political interests. This is what we reviewed in our research by examining the shortcomings of the licensing method and the effectiveness of the administration's oversight during the approval and granting of petroleum licenses.

This analysis explores the most significant change in Japan’s defense policy since the end of World War II, based on Prime Minister Fumio Kishida’s government publication, in late 2022, of three policy documents proposing to expand the country’s military capabilities by increasing military spending over a 5-year period. The most remarkable proposition is to acquire a counterstrike capability, consisting of long-range cruise missiles to strike deep into a potential adversary’s territory. Contrary to arguments pointing out these plans represent an “unprecedented” transformation of Japan’s defense policy since 1946, they are rather the logical consequence of a gradual, but significant, change that has been occurring since at least a couple of decades. These recent proposals are explored within the wider debate about whether Japan should continue pursuing a pacifist posture, or to adopt a more assertive stance in response to a more threatening international environment.

This article offers a comprehensive review of Audience Cost Theory (ACT) over the past 30 years, analyzing it through the lens of scientific realism. Originally proposed by James Fearon (1994), ACT posits that leaders face domestic political costs if they make threats in international crises and subsequently back down. The theory has sparked significant debate, with empirical support being divided. While survey experiments generally confirm public disapproval of empty threats, historical case studies and large-N quantitative analyses provide mixed or limited evidence. This article identifies three key research agendas: the existence of audience costs (theoretical entity), how leaders act with audience cost awareness (theoretical mechanism), and whether ACT’s predictions reflect real-world outcomes (logical consequences). This article argues that disagreement over ACT has been hitherto the result of each researcher’s different analysis of the three agendas. From a scientific realism perspective, ACT’s core entity—audience costs—may exist but often remains unobservable in real-world data owing to the idealization of experimental scenarios and selection effects. The study concludes that future research must link audience cost entities with mechanisms and outcomes, enhance data reproducibility, and conduct meta-analyses. Oral histories and additional survey experiments conducted under various political conditions are recommended to enhance the theory’s empirical foundation and practical significance in international relations.

Background The theory of Observational Relativity (OR), as a new theory in human-developed physics, has revealed the essence of the relativistic effects of Einstein theory of relativity, and moreover, has generalized and unified Newton’s classical mechanics and Einstein’s relativity theory. However, the original intention of OR research is not to establish the theory of OR, but to give photons a little rest mass. According to Einstein special relativity, an object of matter moving in inertial spacetime has two types of mass: the rest mass; the moving mass. However, Einstein claimed that photons had no the rest mass. In fact, the moving mass depends on observation and is not objectively real. So, photons would have no mass if they had no the rest mass. Methods According to the materialist view of nature, the natural world is a world of matter, and all matter or material particles, including photons, have the objectively intrinsic mass. Naturally, the objectively real mass must be independent of observation. OR serial report 1 has elucidate the theoretical validity and empirical basis of OR. Now, OR serial report 2 will report the logical consequence of OR: photons have the rest mass. Results The theory of Inertial OR (IOR) has theoretically proved that photons possess the rest mass; the theory of Gravitational OR (GOR) has theoretically calculated and predicted that the rest mass of a photon with the frequency f is m o = hf/c 2 . Conclusions The logical consequence that photons has the rest mass are in line with the materialist view of nature: all matter or material particles must possess the objectively real mass; an object of matter, whether it is a massive star or a tiny photon, must possess the rest mass of its own if it exists objectively; otherwise, it does not exist.

Drawing on realist international political economy, strategic trade theory, and constructivist insights, this study critically evaluates the Trump administration’s tariff policies through a comparative case study of China and India and examines their strategic logic and economic consequences. It finds that while China responded with defiance and techno-nationalism, India pursued a more differentiated form of diplomatic compliance and supply chain realignment. This study applies a mixed-methods approach combining process tracing, structured comparison, and discourse analysis to assess whether tariffs function as effective tools of economic statecraft or produce unintended consequences, such as inflation, supply chain disruptions, and diplomatic tensions. This study draws on macroeconomic indicators and policy responses from 2018 to 2024. The analysis also shows that although tariffs elicited the partial concessions from China, most notably (Phase One Deal) but failed to resolve structural trade imbalances, India succesfully leveraged its diplomatic accommodation to faciliate supply chain realignment. Ultimately, Trump’s tariffs achieved limited short-term leverage but lacked the sustainability and coherence required of a long-term trade strategy. The study urges a recalibrated U.S. trade policy that balances coercive tools with multilateral engagement, contributing to international political economy debates by showing economic coercion yields divergent outcomes shaped by the domestic institutions and strategic culture.

Currently, the issuance of Law Number 3 of 2022 concerning the National Capital is a concrete step taken by the Government to seek the relocation and development of a new National Capital, because economic growth has so far been considered too Java-centric by some in the community. However, it cannot be denied that after the issuance of this law it triggered new problems, including the problem regarding the position of the Head of the Archipelago Capital Authority. Therefore, through this research, we will answer issues related to the position of the Head of the Archipelago Capital Authority along with the logical consequences related to his role based on the regional government system. Normative legal research methods or what is usually called doctrinal legal research, the approaches used are the statutory approach and the conceptual approach. The research results show that the position of the Head of the Nusantara Capital Authority is as head of a special regional government at the provincial level. The logical consequences received from this regulation are that the election, appointment and dismissal are carried out directly by the President as per the President's prerogative, the regions are centralized, and there is no Regional People's Representative Council (DPRD) as an instrument of regional autonomy.

The treatise on logical consequence attributed to John of Holland and composed around 1370 is preserved in two currently known copies, namely Kraków, Biblioteka Jagiellońska, ms. 2660, fols. 24r–36r and Wien, Österreichische Staatsbibliothek, ms. 4698, fols. 138v–145v. While neither copy is complete, the missing parts do not overlap, and thus the content of the treatise can be reconstructed. The treatise presents an account of validity based on the containment of conclusions in premises, also incorporating the substitutional account of validity, and modal intuitions regarding truth-preservation as a necessary condition of validity. From the medieval-literature perspective, it can be viewed as a collection of sophisms relating to various rules of inference, including paradoxical contexts such as semantic paradoxes and ex contradictione quodlibet.

This article studies the ways proposed in the Hispano-Visigothic monastic rules to regulate intra-community conflicts. Hispanic monasteries were made up of very heterogeneous individuals who, in a short period of time, became part of the same community. Therefore, the monks underwent an intense process of conversion and adaptation. They had to integrate their individual identity into the framework of a new, collective identity, which was the monastic community. Conflicts, in this sense, were an inseparable reality of the rest of the cenobitic experience. Living together was not always easy, but it was necessary to try to create relations of harmony and harmony among the monks. For this reason, conflicts were naturalised and perceived as a logical consequence of community life. Providing tools for their regulation was essential for the monks to be able to live their dedication to the monastic community to the full. We understand, therefore, that conflicts were understood as part of the processes of renegotiating the monks’ identity and defining the limits of individual freedom in the community.

The short-video app TikTok has become one of the most used social media platforms globally. Its affordances are distinctly different from those of prior apps and platforms—specifically due to TikTok’s algorithm-centric design. This essay critically reflects on the consequences of this design logic, especially in relation to modes of public connection, resistance, and social change. Reflecting on ethnographic fieldwork on TikTok, it opens three perspectives: (1) on the modes of disconnected sociability that TikTok’s “For You” page affords, (2) the forms of infrapolitical resistance that materialize within the textual structure of the “For You” page, and (3) the importance of creativity as an element of the consumption process shaping its social meaningfulness. Across these three perspectives, the essay argues that TikTok affords relatively unique modes of public connection which, ultimately, can only be understood in their real consequences when viewed as integrated parts of the micro-social world where people’s day-to-day lives unfold.

Temperature chaos is a striking phenomenon in spin glasses, where even slight changes in temperature lead to a complete reconfiguration of the spin state. Another intriguing effect is the reentrant transition, in which lowering the temperature drives the system from a ferromagnetic phase into a less ordered spin-glass or paramagnetic phase. In the present paper, we reveal an unexpected connection between these seemingly unrelated phenomena in the finite-dimensional Edwards-Anderson model of spin glasses by introducing a generalized formulation that incorporates correlations among disorder variables. Assuming the existence of a spin-glass phase at finite temperature, we establish that temperature chaos arises as a logical consequence of reentrance in the Edwards-Anderson model. Our findings uncover a previously hidden mathematical structure relating reentrance and temperature chaos, offering a new perspective on the physics of spin glasses beyond the mean-field theory.

This article is devoted to a comprehensive study of the precedential nature of European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) decisions and determining their place in the domestic legal system. The author argues that the ECHR’s law enforcement practice is increasingly influencing the transformation of the legal systems of the Roman-Germanic legal family, in particular Ukraine, towards the gradual recognition of judicial precedent as a full-fledged source of law. The article provides a detailed analysis of the legal nature of ECHR acts, in particular establishing that not all decisions of the Court have equal legal significance. It proposes dividing the acts into interim and final decisions, of which only some are included. Particular attention is paid to the normative influence of ECHR decisions, which, although adopted in the context of specific disputes, formulate general legal standards that must be taken into account by national courts, regardless of the participation of a particular state in the case. In this context, it is argued that the decisions of the ECHR go beyond the ordinary interpretation of the provisions of the Convention, acquiring the character of autonomous sources of law. The author supports the concept of international judicial precedent, within which the decisions of the ECHR are considered not only as an instrument for interpreting the provisions of international law, but as an independent normative source with a precedent nature. The author examines theoretical problems of implementing the ECHR’s practice in the Ukrainian legal system, including insufficient access to the Court’s decisions, limited official publication, lack of high-quality translations, and incorrect application of precedents in practice. The author proposes a set of specific measures to address these problems: the creation of a unified national database of ECHR practice with filtering and search tools; improvement of mechanisms for the publication and translation of decisions; and improvement of the legal education and qualifications of judges and lawyers in the field of European law. The conclusions emphasize that recognizing ECHR decisions as a source of law is not only a legal obligation of Ukraine as a state party to the Convention, but also a logical consequence of the transformation of the legal system aimed at integration into the pan-European legal space. Thus, the case law of the ECHR is already shaping a new paradigm of Ukrainian justice based on the principles of predictability, unity, respect for human rights, and the rule of law.

While Herbert Spencer is widely recognized as one of the first figures to speak about differentiation as an important sociological concept, accounts of the discipline’s development often give the impression that his ideas about this process have little in common with those of later thinkers, or were quickly superseded by more sophisticated efforts. Countering this view, the following article argues that the theories of differentiation articulated by Talcott Parsons and his followers in the middle of the 20th century were highly derivative of, and in some respects entirely identical to, those proposed by Spencer. By examining some illustrative parallels between Spencerian theory and its ‘structural-functionalist’ counterpart, I demonstrate that Parsons repeats Spencer in several key respects, and show that the similarities in question are a logical consequence of the metatheoretical commitments shared by both figures. The analysis suggests that these commitments will lead to common features, and generate common problems, in any account of differentiation that begins from their assumptions.

ABSTRACT The distinction between formal and material consequence was introduced into medieval logic in the fourteenth century. Authors widely adopted the new terms but disagreed on their definition. The so-called Parisian tradition regarded a formal consequence as one that was valid for any substitution of categorematic terms, whereas the so-called British tradition required that the meaning of the consequent be contained in that of the antecedent. The former criterion resembles our model-theoretic definition of logical consequence, but it was the latter that, it has been claimed, was more popular at the time. Why? I argue that the question has no answer because the contradistinction of substitution and containment does not stand up to scrutiny. I base my argument on selected texts from various fourteenth-century authors, including Walter Burley, Nicholas Drukken of Denmark, Richard Lavenham, and Peter of Mantua. Instead of two distinct criteria, one of which is favoured over the other, we find various ways of mixing the two and gradual developments towards a hybrid view. I would say that both traditions made use of a substitutional criterion and that they only disagreed on what is to be substituted and what is not, i.e. what counts as form.

As a demonstration of what can be accomplished with contemporary LLMs, this paper outlines the high-level design of an AI-first, program-synthesis framework built around a new programming language, Universalis, designed for knowledge workers to read, optimized for our neural computer to execute, and ready to be analyzed and manipulated by an accompanying set of tools. We call the language Universalis in honor of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Leibniz's centuries-old program of a universal science for coordinating all human knowledge into a systematic whole comprises two parts: (1) a universal notation by use of which any item of information whatsoever can be recorded naturally and systematically, and (2) a means of manipulating the knowledge thus recorded in a computational fashion, to reveal its logical interrelations and consequences. Exactly what current day LLMs provide!

The purpose of this study is to examine and analyze the authority of the Regency/City Regional Government in collecting and/or not collecting PBJT tax on entertainment services in the form of steam baths/spas and the reconstruction of the amount of PBJT rates for entertainment services in the form of steam baths/spas after the Constitutional Court Decision. The mention of steam baths/spas in this article must be interpreted as traditional health services as per the Constitutional Court Decision No. 19/PUU-XXII/2024. Therefore, this study is a legal study using three approaches, namely the statutory, conceptual, and case approaches. The results of this study indicate that the Regency/City Regional Government must collect PBJT on arts and entertainment services in the form of steam baths/spas as long as it is stated in the Regional Regulation. However, the Regency/City Government may not collect PBJT on arts and entertainment services in the form of steam baths/spas if there are or are met the requirements as stipulated in Article 6 paragraph (2) of Law No. 1 of 2022. Because the mention of steam baths/spas is stated to provide no guarantee of legal certainty and creates a negative stigma in society by the Constitutional Court, the logical consequence of this is to remove steam baths/spas from the category of discotheques, karaoke, nightclubs and bars and put them in the category of massage parlors and reflexology. So, the PBJT tariff for arts and entertainment services in the form of steam baths/spas is adjusted to Article 58 paragraph (1) of Law no. 1 of 2022 which levies the highest PBJT of 10%.

This paper seeks to identify potential shifts in identity politics, which appear to be evolving in unpredictable ways. This paper observed that, regardless of the underlying dynamics and political shifts, the logical consequences of political turmoil on education, particularly Christian Religious Education, have resulted in the creation of an alienated space at a certain level. Adequate access and care for children with diverse needs, the restructuring of the curriculum, and the 2024 political promise for the education sector are among the key challenges. In light of these observations, this paper examine each phenomenon individually in the role of Gianni Vattimo. This paper employs qualitative research methods, specifically interview techniques, with female subjects, with the aim of elucidating the phenomenon of identity segregation in the context of the livelihood space. The findings demonstrate that Gianni Vattimo's philosophical approach, known as 'weak thought' or 'pensiero debole', is not solely associated with religious hermeneutics. Instead, it also evinces a distinctive interpretation of identity politics, whereby the advancement of specific individual or collective interests exerts a considerable influence on the domain of Christian religious education. Consequently, the value of weak thinking is contingent upon the establishment of mutual respect and love across identities.

The article provides a philosophical and legal understanding of the war between Ukraine and the RF. The methodological basis of this study is the concept of the “Nomos of the Earth” by the famous German lawyer C. Schmitt. At the same time, “Nomos” is not taken in its traditional sense as a positive law that is opposed to “physis” as a natural law. By “Nomos of the Earth,” the German legal philosopher understands the event of measuring the earth, the essence of which is the phenomena of ordering and localisation. Due to this event, both positive and natural law receive their ontological foundation. In turn, the historical equivalent of Nomos is the act of seizure of land. According to the German legal scientist, it is the historical event of the distribution and appropriation of land that establishes the political, economic and legal order. Any right has its origin in a certain designated territory. At the same time, the seizure of land should not be understood as a purely arbitrary, armed takeover. Therefore, the article sets out the criteria (consent of the legal sovereign, consent of the overwhelming majority of subjects of international law, consent of the indigenous population of the occupied territory) by which the actual seizure of land turns into a legal event that can be included in the global or continental legal order. A logical consequence of this procedure is a rethinking of the phenomenon of war, which is understood as an armed conflict between equal sovereigns that is conducted according to certain rules. If these rules are violated, it is no longer a war, but a punitive action against the aggressor as a violator of international law. Therefore, the law aims not to prohibit but to limit war. As a result, the author concludes that law in time of war applies only to equal subjects and has three main directions of action: punishment, forgiveness (amnesty) and reconciliation.

The low level of student discipline manifested in behaviors such as tardiness, disorderliness, and lack of academic responsibility remains a challenge in many schools, including SMA Islam Parlaungan Waru Sidoarjo. This study aims to examine the implementation of the logical consequences approach as an educational strategy for instilling discipline and building character. A qualitative case study method was employed, with data collected through interviews, observations, and documentation. The findings reveal that logical consequences were applied through reflective activities such as self-evaluation writing, recitation of Qur’anic verses, and discussions on accountability for one’s actions. This approach does not focus on punishment, but rather on cultivating an understanding of values and the impact of one’s behavior. As a result, students began to demonstrate increased awareness and positive behavioral change. The success of this strategy was supported by active teacher involvement, principal support, and parent collaboration. However, challenges persist, including uneven teacher comprehension of the logical consequences concept and the lengthy process required for value internalization. In conclusion, logical consequences offer an effective alternative disciplinary strategy by emphasizing a participatory approach and character formation. The findings imply the importance of developing a value- and logic-based disciplinary system to foster a positive and transformative learning environment.

Standard accounts of logical consequence take it to be determined by valid inferences. Recently, it has been argued that valid inferences underdetermine consequence. Instead, consequence should be characterised as determined by metainferences, i.e., inferences between inferences. For all its benefits, this view faces various problems, including the fact that it appears to be incompatible with the phenomenology of the inferential practice, and the widely endorsed idea that simplicity and naturalness should guide logical theorising. This paper rejects this idea, arguing that, in its extreme form, it amounts to an untenable form of foundationalism about logical consequence. Instead, I will argue that metainferentialism is best embraced and further justified from the standpoint of a broadly constructionist (in the sense of Floridi (Metaphilosophy 42:282–304, 2011)) approach to logic.

This qualitative phenomenological study examines the role of SD Ulul Albab as an Islamic school in shaping the social identity of urban Muslim communities in Jember. Data were collected through participant observation, semi-structured, and curriculum document analysis. Using Miles' interactive analysis model and triangulation validation, the findings reveal three key aspects: First, Strengthening collective identity through structured programs (Qur’an memorisation, congregational prayers, family-based activities) that foster social cohesion, consistent with Tajfel & Turner's social identity theory regarding the cognitive-evaluative-affective functions of groups; Second, the dialectic between strong religious identity preservation and adaptation challenges in pluralistic societies, demonstrating the complexity of value internalisation according to Ellemers; Third, the potential for exclusivity as a logical consequence of intensive group identity formation, as anticipated in Tajfel's concept of ingroup favouritism. While providing theoretical contributions to understanding Islamic education as a medium for urban identity construction, the single-case study limitation necessitates follow-up comparative and longitudinal research. Practically, these findings recommend an integrative educational model that maintains Islamic distinctiveness while developing multicultural competencies as a response to the challenges of Indonesia's increasingly pluralistic urban society.